Introduction
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Study of web of social relation - Sociology
è
Youngest social science, emerged in 19th
century from Europe to alleviate the then social problems and disorders.
è
French sociologist August Comte presented
sociology as the scientific study of social behavior and relationship in his
book 'Positive Philosophy' in 1839 A.D. So he is considered as the father of
sociology. Four founding fathers of sociology are August Comte, Emile Durkheim,
Herbert Spencer, and Max Weber.
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Sociology emerged from Latin word 'Socious' and
'Logos' that means 'study or science of society'.
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Emile Durkheim: "Sociology is the study of
social facts."
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Karl Marx: "In a broader sense, sociology
is the study of social functions and social system."
Rural
Sociology:
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The credit of Rural Sociology goes to America.
The period from 1820 to 1920 in America is labeled as the age of exploitation. Due
to the exploitation of rural merchants to farmers, the trend of moving into
city was increased, to stop the unprecedented mobility, the development of
Rural Sociology was most. Charles Sanderson, Burtherfield, Ernest Burnholme,
John Morris Gillin, F.H. Gidding and Thomas Nixon Carver are some of the
prominent persons to promote the development of Rural Sociology as academic
subject.
è
Former President Roosevelt established ‘Country
life Commission’ in 1908. Which formed ‘Magna Charta’ of Rural Sociology. And
the organization prepared questionnaire, and on the basis of answers from the
rural respondents, they prepared report, which is called as Charter.
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In 1916 Prof. J.M. Gillette published book
‘Rural Sociology’ for university students. American Sociological Society formed
Department of Rural Sociology in 1917 A.D.
è
1930s economic depression, World War II,
supported by UNO, UNESCO, and FAO promoted the development of Rural Sociology.
America, Europe, Japan to the present academic subject.
A) “Rural
Sociology is the study of human relationship in the rural environment.” – A.L. Bertrand
B) “Rural
sociology is the sociology of life in rural environment.” – D. Sanderson
Nature of Rural Sociology:
è
Sociology is the big brother is Rural Sociology.
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Carr has said that, every social sciences have
their own style, perspective and valid way to search an applied solution.
Science goes with method not with subject matter.
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Rural Sociology as a part only of the broader
domain of sociology and social anthropology.
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It is concerned with the rural life,
relationship, behavior, customs, traditions, values and norms of rural kind.
Is Rural Sociology a Science?
Yes, because:
a) Use
of scientific method
b) Description
of reality and objectivity
c) Universal
explanation
d) Cause-effect
relationship
e) Formulation
of theory and its verification
f) Prediction
g) Positive
Science
Limitation of the Scientific Study of Rural Sociology:
a) Absence
of laboratory
b) Lack
of objectivity
c) Lack
of long historical and institutional background
d) Difficulty
in drawing clear difference between rural and urban environment
e) Interdependence
of cause and effect
f) Intangible
social phenomenon
g) Unpredictability
h) Complexity
of social data
i)
Lack of measuring the subject matter
Importance of Rural Sociology:
a) Majority
of world population live in rural areas
b) Study
of the rural social structure and specialty
c) Rural
development and social change
d) Agriculture
transformation
e) Realistic
study of rural society
f) To
understand the intimate relationship between land and man
g) Helpful
to formulate rural development policy
h) Use
of indigenous knowledge
i)
Study of the psychological approach of rural
life
Relation of Rural Sociology with other Social Sciences:
a) Rural
sociology and Sociology
b) Rural
sociology and Anthropology
c) Rural
sociology and Economics
d) Rural
sociology and Political Science
e) Rural
sociology and Psychology
Scope of Rural Sociology
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Rural social life
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Rural social structure and institutions
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Rural culture, values and norms
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Rural Industries
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Effect of urbanization on rural life
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Rural infrastructures
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Rural community and its organs
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Rural finance
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Social change and control
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Rural natural resources
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Rural
poverty and unemployment
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Rural population
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Rural political system and leadership
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Rural planning and reconstructions
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Rural social process
Methods/Tools for the Study of Rural Sociology:
The term ‘tool’ is used here to refer to both material
objects and concepts employed in research and scientific investigation in rural
sociology. Method is basic of enquiry whereas tools are the instruments by
means of which data are generated from the field.
a) Cross-Sectional
studies
If the study population covers only one segment of
the population, the study is a cross sectional study. In this method
investigator collects data and describes the phenomenon at a particular point
of time. Takes single point of time.
b) Longitudinal
studies
If the study id continued for a number of periods
on the same segments of the population, it is called longitudinal study.
Longitudinal studies are made for detecting the changes in practices or
indicators of the phenomenon. The study of changing attitude toward family life
among Nepalese youths during a last decade is an example of a longitudinal
study. In this method, the development of the problem over a period of time is
described.
c) Ex-post
facto (Comparison)
Comparative study of social and psychological
issues. Study with comparison of present phenomena or events to past phenomena.
This focuses on presenting changes in contrast to past situation of the same
area. This is considered third most popular and practical method according to
Chitambar.
d) Historical
Method
Analyzing present situation according to past situation
is Historical method.
Steps of Historical Method: i) Collection of data ii) Criticism of data iii) Presentation of data
by time reference
This things should be considered while applying
this method:
-
Insight
-
Historical perspective
-
Dispassionate attitude
-
Imaginative capacity
-
Capacity to select
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Analysis capacity
-
Knowledge of the study area
e) Case-Study
Method
Developed in 19th century by Fredric Le
Play (1806-1882). Case study is a method of exploring and analyzing the life of
a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, a cultural
group or even entire community.
Characteristics of Case Study:
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Study of one unit
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Intensive study of the problem
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Individual study
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Whole study
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Historical study
-
Qualitative study
Types of Case Study:
-
Individual case study: Persons personal life
study
-
Community case study: may be any specific group,
situation etc.
f) Field-Survey
Method
This is an authorized observation of the phenomena
in natural state of the local people for the collection of scientific &
actual data. This method may apply questionnaire, interview and observation for
primary data collection.
g) Statistical
Method
Statistical method is a method in which efforts are
made to identify the problems with the help of facts and figures. The credit of
using statistical method in rural sociology goes to Giddings. Statistics, if
correct and rightly collected and properly tabulated, go a long way in finding
out solution to may problems. Odum says “Statistics in science of numbering and
measuring phenomena objectively and is essential too of research.” And Bogardus
said “Social statistics is mathematics applied to human facts.”
h) Observation
Method
Concise Oxford Dictionary: “Accurate watching,
nothing of phenomena as they occur nature with regard to cause and effect and
mutual relationship.”
C.A. Moser: “In the strict sense observation
implies the use of eyes rather than ears and the voice.”
Characteristics of Observation:
-
Eye affair
-
Intensive study
-
Direct method to study
-
Cause and effect relationship
-
Collection of primary data
Types of Observation:
a) Non-controlled
Observation
a. Participant
observation
b. Non-participant
observation
c. Mixed
observation
d. Mass
observation
b) Controlled
Observation
a. Control
over social phenomena
b. Control
over observer
i)
Rapid Rural Appraisal/Participatory Rural
Appraisal (RRA/PRA)
S.W. Grandstaff: “RRA is a rapid, intensive and
interactive process of learning about rural conditions from multidisciplinary
perspective with a particular emphasis on tapping the local knowledge by
explaining a range of methods, tools & techniques.”
Robert Chamber: “A growing family of approaches
& methods to enable rural people to share, enhance and analyze their
knowledge.”
j)
Questionnaire Method
Goode & Hatt: “In general the word
questionnaire refers to a device of securing answers to questions by using a
form which the respondents fills in himself.”
Bogardus: “A questionnaire is a list of questions
sent to a number of persons for them to answer.”
Characteristics of Questionnaire:
-
Data collection techniques
-
Use in wide area
-
Printed form
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Mailing process
-
Type of schedule
-
Self-administered
k) Interview
Method
M.N. Basu: “An interview can be defined as a
meeting of persons face to face on some points.”
Denzin N.K.: “An interview is a face to face
conversational exchange where one person elicits information form another
person.”
Sociology of Rural Life
-
Geographical Environment
-
Social Environment
-
Cultural Environment
Achievements of Sociology of Rural Life:
-
Development of we feeling & integrity
-
Solution of personal problem through group
effort
-
Discussion, participation & empowerment of
rural people
-
Security to local culture, skill & knowledge
Rural
Society & Social Structure
Concept of Folk Society:
è
Group of people with great solidarity and
homogeneity, informal behavior, based on agriculture etc…
Characteristics of Folk Society:
a) Homogeneity
b) Common
Interest
c) Illiterate
d) Kinship
System
e) Self-reliance
f) Small
in size
g) We-feeling
h) Belief
in black magic
i)
Labor division
Rural-Urban Continuum:
“There is no any clear demarcation line between urban and
rural communities even if some dichotomy.” –MacIver
Characteristics of Rural Community:
a) Common
life
b) Common
rules and system
c) Community
sentiments
d) Subsistence
economy
e) Social
equality
f) Close
relation with nature
g) Importance
of family and neighborhood
·
High degree of homogeneity
·
Agriculture based
·
Self-sufficiency
·
Frequent social interaction
·
Informal social control
·
Harmony and solidarity
Major functions of Rural Community:
a) Socialization
b) Social
control
c) Participation
d) Support
e) Distribution
f) Empowerment
Nepali Village in Global context:
a) Natural
beauty
b) Historical
and religious places
c) Cultural
diversity
d) Diversity
in climate
e) Dependency
f) Brain
drain
g) Landlocked
h) Simple
rural behavior and rusticity
i)
Periphery of periphery
j)
Origin place of poverty
k) Dominance
or typical rural environment
System of Village:
è
A system indicates an orderly arrangements of
parts
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A system may have its boundaries
è
System is an abstract
è
Social system refers to the orderly arrangement
of parts or components of society namely; human interaction. Individuals in
their process of interaction and influence each other. Their interrelationship
and interaction assume a definite pattern which is called social system.
Characteristics of Village Social System:
a) Meaningful
interaction
b) Based
on social interaction
c) Rural
social system is unity
d) Combination
of sub-systems
e) Related
with cultural system
f) Dynamic
and balanced
Rural Social Process:
“The term social process refers to the repetitive forms of
behavior which are commonly found in social life.” –Horton & Horton
Social Process is the interactions of many facts in social
life. It includes; way of interaction, relationship establishment, way of
behaving and repetition of social process as a whole.
Forms of Rural Social Processes:
a) Co-operation
b) Conflict
c) Competition
d) Adoption
e) Assimilation
f) Acculturation
g) Sanskritization
h) Differentiation
i)
Accommodation
Rural Hierarchy and Its Units:
a) Caste
b) Ethnicity
c) Family
d) Kinship
e) Power
structure (politics)
f) Rural
economy
Social Mobility
Social mobility refers to the movement from one social
group to another; occupational mobility from the one occupation to another; and
territorial mobility from rural to urban areas, from urban to rural areas or
within the rural or urban areas.
“Social movement refers to movement up or down on social
status.” –Horton & Hunt
“Social mobility is the movement of a person or persons
from one social status to another.” –Wallace & Wallace
Determinant Factors of Social Mobility:
a) Education
b) Occupation
c) Economic
activities
d) Religious
institutions
e) Politics
f) Transportation
and communication
Types of Social Mobility:
a) According
to P.A. Sorokin: i) Vertical mobility ii)
Horizontal mobility
A) Open
and close mobility
B)
Geographical mobility
C) Inter-generational
mobility
Importance and Consequences of Social Mobility:
a) Increase
in social prestige, power and status
b) Creation
of employment opportunities
c) Acts
as safety-value
d) Increase
in living standard
e) Provide
social justice
f) Skills
and capacity development
g) Socio-economic
transformation
h) Formulation
of open society
Class Structure:
A class is a group of people who have similar
socio-economic status.
“A social class is a portion of community carried off from
rest by social status.” –Max Weber
“A social class is stratum of people who are similar in
power, wealth and prestige.” –Ellis
Characteristics of Class Structure:
a) Open
and dynamic in nature
b) Competitive
system
c) Feeling
of superiority and inferiority
d) Universal
e) Class
consciousness
f) Hierarchy
of class
g) Completely
achieved
h) Class
struggle
i)
Equal life standard of the same class
j)
Economic group
Social Stratification
“Social stratification is a horizontal division of society
into the high and low social units.” –Raymond W. Murry
Power, property and prestige of a person extensively
contributes for social stratification and class creation.
Features of Social Stratification:
a) It
is an ancient process
b) It
is social
c) It
is in diverse form
d) It
is consequential
e) Universal
process
Importance of Social Stratification in Rural Development
-
Encourages to work hard
-
Competitive sentiment
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Productive use of resources
-
Creation of different professions jobs
-
Reinforcement in skill, knowledge, and attitude
-
Social control
-
Proper utilization of resources
-
Contribution to social integration &
structure
-
Increase in social status
-
Simplification
Social Movement
“A social movement is a collective effort to transform
established relations with a particular society.” –Rudolf Herberl
“Organized group effort to generate or resist social
change.” – Neil J. Smelser
Characteristics of Social Movement
-
Ideology based
-
Collective effort
-
Focus on action
-
Objective oriented
-
Oriented towards social change
-
Organizational framework
-
Strong sense of dedication
-
Certain subject matter and area
Components & Stages of Social Movement:
According to J.B. Chitambar:
a) Social
unrest
b) Emergence
of leadership
c) Formation
& Propagation of Ideology
d) Program
organization & strategies
e) Capture
of Power
f) Institutionalization
Types of Social Movement
a) Reform
Movement
b) Revolutionary
Movement
c) Reactionary/Revivalist
Movement
d) Resistance
Movement
e) Utopian
Movement
Overview of Agrarian Social Structure in Nepal
The dictionary meaning of ‘Agrarian’ is anything related to
land, its management and distribution. It refers to the political movement in
favor of change in conditions of property in land. It is called Agrarian.
Two Aspects of Agrarianism
i)
Technological Arrangement
ii) Social Arrangement
Pattern of Agriculture in Nepal
-
More than 80% people are dependent on
agriculture
-
0.16 and 0.115ha/person land holding in average
-
32% of total GDP is by agriculture
-
Before
A.D. 1980 production was export oriented and after 1990; import oriented
-
Mainstreaming of land reform issues but lack of
implementation
-
More than 25% people are under poverty line
instead of loss in agriculture
-
Formulation of Agriculture Perspective Plan
(AAP) with objectives:
o
Expansion of irrigation facility
o
Market expansion through rural roads &
transportation development
o
Increase in production by utilizing technology
o
Availability of high class seeds and fertilizers
But,
lacks proper implementation
Cropping Pattern:
Mountain region covers 35% of total area in which only 2%
is cultivable. Hilly region covers 42% and only 10% is suitable for
agriculture. 23% land resides in Terai region & 40% is considered
agriculturally suitable.
Mountain: Barley, Paddy, Maize, Wheat etc.
Hilly: Paddy, Maize, Wheat, Barley etc.
Terai: Paddy, Wheat, Maize, Barley, Tobacco, Potato,
Sugarcane, Jut & Cotton etc.
APP- Irrigation, Transportation, Technology, and Improved
Seeds/Fertilizer- Not properly implemented
32% of GDP is contributed by Agriculture
0.16 & 0.15 ha/person land holding- Land Reform 2021
Cereal Crops: Paddy, Maize, Barley, Wheat, Millet…
Cash Crops: Oil, Potato, Tobacco, Sugarcane, Jut, Cotton,
Tea, Coffee…
Pulse Crops: Lentil
Fruits & Vegetables
Problems of Nepalese Agriculture:
-
Backward technology
-
Lack of irrigation
-
Lack of agriculture
-
Indebtedness of farmers
-
Lack of agriculture research
-
Unorganized agriculture market
-
Dual ownership of land/crops
-
Lack of transportation
-
Lack of store
-
Lack of seed & fertilizer
Land Tenure System in Nepal:
1) Raikar-94%
2) Birta-4%
3) Guthi-2%
4) Kipat
5) Jagir
6) Rakam
7) Rajya
Land Reform:
Land reform is the process of scientific distribution of
land according to the changing time & situation.
Prof. Gunnar Mrida: Land reform is institutional
reorganization of relation between lands & man its control.
Mainly Land reform Includes:
-
Social justice on land holding &
distribution
-
Increase in agriculture productivity
-
Decision in use of land
-
Agriculture & non-agriculture structure
-
Institutional development for land reform
25%
of people are landless
3%
people hold 17% land and 17% people own 3% land
Land Reform Act 1964 (2021 B.S.)
-
Enacted from Mangshir 1 2021
Objectives:
-
Establishment of exploitation less society
-
Justifiable distribution of land and income
received by land
-
Increase in living standard of farmers
-
To maintain social justice
-
Transformation of passive labor & capital
from agriculture to industrial sector
-
Utilization of modern technology
-
Creation of appropriate environment for
socio-economic development
Features of Land Reform Act 1964
-
Tenancy right
-
Fixation of rent
-
Ceiling on land ownership
-
Acquisition of land over ceiling
-
Redistribution of surplus land
-
Agriculture debt and interest rate
-
Compulsory saving
-
Abolition of diverse land system
Kamaiya Free Movement:
Government of Nepal freed 83 thousand 3hundered 75 Kamaiyas
in 2057 Shrawan 1. But feeling lack of economic security and basic needs some
of them returned to be Kamaiya. Kamaiya system is a kind of labor system in
which the later generation are compelled to work in merchants’ home because of
their debt by older generation. This system is dominantly found in Terai region
of Nepal.
Revolutionary Land Reform Act 2058
-
5th amendment of land reform act 1964
Provision:
|
Region
|
Land Lords
|
Tenants
|
||
|
Agriculture
|
Homestead
|
Agriculture
|
Homestead
|
|
|
Terai
|
10 Bigha
|
1 Bigha
|
4 Bigha
|
1 Bigha
|
|
Kathmandu
|
25 Ropani
|
5 Ropani
|
10 Ropani
|
5 Ropani
|
|
Hill
|
70 Ropani
|
5 Ropani
|
20 Ropani
|
5 Ropani
|
Some aspects of rapid implementation:
o
Recent implementation of revolutionary land
reform
o
Land ownership to women
o
Land to freed Kamaiya by end of 2058 Magh &
settlement
Concept
& Approaches of Development
Concept & meaning of Development
Development is a multi-dimensional approach. It is the
process of maximizing positive happiness of people & making human life
valuable, self-sustaining. It is ever continuous process.
“Development is a state of mind, a tendency, a direction
rather than a fixed goal, it is a rate of change in particular direction.” –
Edward W. Widener
“Development as the fruitful betterment of individual in
aspects.” – Dictionary of Sociology
Meaning of Rural Development:
Rural development is the dynamic process of positive change
in agriculture based area, it can be analyzed as:
-
A Process: Development of agriculture related aspects
& human resources.
-
A Phenomenon: Interaction of physical,
environmental, technological, economic & social aspects of rural area.
-
A Strategy: Rural socio-economic development
strategy.
“Rural development is transformation system of traditional
culture to modern science & technology.”–Ensminger
Objective of Rural Development:
-
To enhance production & productivity
-
Socio-economic equality
-
Increase in community participation
-
Ecological balance & growth
-
Balance in socio-economic development
-
Employment opportunities
Core Values of Rural Development:
 |
Significance
of Rural Development:
-
To solve rural problem
-
Social change
-
Best utilization of resources
-
Development of infrastructures
-
Sources of employment & livelihood
-
Increase in national income
-
Food & fodder
-
Industrial development
-
International trade
-
Capital formation & investment
-
Political stability
Problems
of Rural Development: |
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Robert
Chamber’s view:
-
Lack of health, education facilities
-
Less economic activities
-
Geographical difficulties
-
Population growth
-
Subsistence farming
-
Uncontrolled migration
-
Environmental degradation
-
Scattered settlement
-
Lack of market
-
Lack of agriculture debt
-
Lack of people’s participation
-
Unequal distribution of land
Mitigating
Measures of Rural Development Problems:
-
Supply of basic needs
-
Special economic aid
-
Settlement management
-
Migration control
-
Decentralization
-
Sustainability in development
-
Action oriented plan
-
Eco-friendly development
-
Alternative employment
State-Centered
Development:
-
State as welfare & conscious factor of
development. State plays active role for plan formulation to implementation
& economic development.
-
Open & free market is profit-oriented, in
this situation state promotes infrastructure construction, socio-cultural,
industrial & economic development, which is as compulsion in less developed
nations.
-
State’s control over means & resources of
production. It invests in social infrastructures (schools, universities,
hospitals…) and welfare orientation.
-
State as the security provider for poor &
marginalized. Equal distribution of means & resources.
-
Directs the role of private sectors in
production rather than rejection.
-
State plays role to decrease the intervention of
privatization & globalization to the local market.
-
State’s full control over means & resources,
so the chance of least exploitation. State intervenes through positive
discrimination and reservation.
-
State’s role is as compulsion in development
activities.
-
Centralized planning system.
-
Enacted in Nepal from 1960s.
Importance
of State-led Development Strategy in Rural Development:
-
Rural poverty alleviation
-
To fill up the gap between rural & urban
area
-
Accommodation of dual economy &
mainstreaming rural issues
-
Employment opportunities
-
Participation of public, private &
government in development
-
Agriculture modernization
-
Scientific land reform
-
Decrease in social evils
-
Political stability
-
Capital formation & mobilization
-
Promotion & protection of local cultures
Weaknesses
of State led Development Strategy:
-
Lack of people’s participation in decision
making
-
Unnecessary control
-
Economic irregularity
-
Over staffing
-
Monopoly
-
Lack of commitment
-
Corruption
-
External intervention on local development
-
Only myth of decentralization
-
Partial treatment in punishment & rewards
Market
Centered Development Strategy:
-
Open market (liberalization, privatization &
globalization)
-
Profit oriented, capital oriented
-
Market as economic mobilizer
-
Surplus accumulation & reinvestment
-
Competition, benefit for limited people
-
Government as facilitator
-
Emphasis of physical property
-
Consumers are supreme
-
Unbiased & private entrepreneurship
Practiced in Nepal only after 1980s
& 2007 B.S. democracy.
Importance
of Market-led Development in Rural Development:
-
Open & competitive market
-
Promotion of export oriented goods &
services
-
Priority to private & international
investment
-
Employment opportunities
-
Qualitative goods & services in reliable
price
-
Rapid economic growth
-
Modernization of agriculture
Weaknesses
of Market-led Development Strategy:
-
Lack of responsibility to general public
-
Market oriented development strategy
-
Gap between poor & rich
-
Dominance & exploitation of elites
-
Less appropriate for less developed societies
-
Risk to local production & cultures
-
Dominance of consumerist & utilitarian
tendency
-
Market monopoly
NGO-Centered
Development Strategy:
After the
World War II, the pace of modernization to the less developed countries was
introduced in 1950s. Failure of Market-led development strategy promoted NGO
centered development strategy, which is believed to have direct relation with
marginalized and deprived people. This mainly focuses in basic needs
facilitation. During 1970s the importance of this strategy captured attention
of leaders & facilitators.
Characteristics
of NGO-led Development Strategy:
-
Participatory development planning
-
Development for the people by the people
-
Economic & technical assistance
-
Service & welfare oriented
-
Income generating & empowerment programs
-
Development group formation & mobilization
-
Awareness creation
-
Focus on sidelined, deprived, marginalized &
poor people
-
Bottom-up approach
-
Focus group program
Assumptions
of NGO-led Development:
-
Welfare & service orientation
-
Local demand, people’s participation,
empowerment & sustainability centered
-
Development for people
-
Mainstreaming backward groups
-
Responsibility division
-
Focus in local people’s needs & demands
-
Active involvement of implementers &
consumers
-
Equitable, gender & eco-friendly development
-
Small to large area development
Working
Areas of NGOs:
-
Agriculture
-
Drinking water
-
Irrigation
-
Human right
-
Education/health
-
Forest/soil conservation
-
Environment protection
-
Infrastructures development
-
Awareness creation
-
Entrepreneurship
Weaknesses
of NGOs Centered Development:
-
Intervention & penetration/corruption
-
Familization
-
Problems of sustainability
-
Lack of co-ordination
-
Problem of monitoring & evaluation
-
Lack of accountability & transparency
-
Limited resources & uncertainty of fund
-
Donor derived
-
Failure to use acceptable technology
-
Ignorance of sensible local issues
-
No systematic record
-
Lack of commitment & autonomous
People-Centered
Development Strategy:
Due to the
failure of pervious theories, to concern the wiling of people, the people
centered development approach was established as bottom up approach. This
mainly focuses in people’s participation in each & every steps & aspects
of development activities. This is self-sufficiency & empowerment of
majority.
Key
Points of People Centered Development:
-
People as the source of knowledge & skills
-
People are active participants
-
Participatory planning
-
Development by people
-
Group mobilization
-
Co-operation
-
High possibility of equity & participation
-
Cheap but effective
-
Bottom-up approach
-
Sustainability
-
State as facilitator
** Putting people first**
**Putting the last first**
**Listen to the people**
Assumptions
of People Centered Development Approach:
a) Killer
Assumptions:
o
People are stupid and they are unable to think
rationally, but they are willing to change; they therefore, need external help
and support.
o
People or poor or community can easily be
reached out by development agents who don’t belong to the community.
o
The notions/concepts of people and community are
homogenous concepts that should not be divided in terms of caste/ethnicity,
class and gender. If the issue of poverty is adequately addressed, it would
automatically take care of problems related to caste/ethnicity, class and
gender.
o
Local level organizations, including the
traditional or indigenous ones, can be evolved to cater to the needs and
interests of capitalism; the social economy should be dismantled.
o
Decision making process should be handover from
the state, private and market to the people.
b) Pro-people
Assumptions:
o
Development should be by the people, not for or
with the people.
o
People should be
actors/masters/experts/producers, not objects/subjects/audience/consumer of development.
o
NGOs can work as an intermediately among the
people, state and market as the latter two are not friendly to the people
without such intermediaries. This statement is partly true but in practice it
has been mostly false.
o
Many people are poor and illiterate but not
irrational and dumb as far as their individual or common good is concerned.
o
The concept of community is very much alive and
useful for poverty alleviation programs.
o
Production is critically important to the goals
of human well-being and self-realization.
o
Creative initiative of people is the primary
development resources.
Importance
of People Centered Development Strategy:
-
Efficiency
-
Effectiveness
-
Increase in skill & ability
-
Development of self-reliance
-
Holistic coverage
-
Local resources mobilization
-
People’s participation
-
Democracy based
-
Increase in awareness
-
Environmental conservation
-
Promotion of local industries
Limitations
of People Centered Development:
-
Dominance of elites
-
Possibility of biasness
-
Limitation in slogan
-
Lack of systematic & rational knowledge
-
Communal violence
-
People are actors of development as myth
-
People’s incapability in all aspects
-
Problem in plan formulation
-
Lack of self-help program
-
Chance of corruption
-
Hinders capitalism & globalization
Culture
& Development
“Culture is
the complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs,
and any other capabilities acquired by men as a member of a society.” –E.B.
Tylor
According to
UNESCO Report (1995) culture is the major base of development. Report highlights
following arguments on culture regarding to development:
-
Culture is the foundation of utilizer
-
Culture is foundation of human development
-
Culture & development are interconnected
subjects
-
Culture is taken as the successive base of human
development & empowerment
-
Members of the community can achieve their
self-esteem & dignity through culture
Christian
protestant culture, norms & values in comparison to catholic. Max Weber
stated culture as the intelligence of brain. Behaviors of a person depends on
his culture. Western culture believes; life is better than death, risk, reward
& opportunity as life lessons. Karl Marx argued, culture as the result of
economic factor. In Nepal, caste hierarchy and labor division is the best
example of culture in relation to development.
Culture can
be matter of development due to following reasons:
-
Culture as a constitutive part of development
-
Economically remunerative cultural activities
& objectives
-
Culture & political participations (Muslim)
-
Social solidarity & association
-
Cultural sites, recollection & past
heritages
-
Culture influences on value formation &
evolution
-
Culture as the means to transformation
-
Culture as attitude, knowledge & practice
F
Religious beliefs
F
Time consciousness
F
Legal biasness
F
Economy & education
F
Value of work
F
Modernity acceptance
F
Wealth orientation
F
Authority to leadership/work etc.
People
Responsive Development
Development
activities that are devoted towards particular agents or people such as
disadvantaged groups. Targeted group of people is considered as pivot in
development process. Redistribution with growth is the main proposition of
people responsive development mechanism. Mainly this approach consists:
-
Feel the needs of the people
-
Community participation
-
Development by the people not with the people
-
People are agents of development
-
Development with the people’s inner view
Culture
Friendly Development
It is a new
concept in development discourse. According to this approach culture is a
matter of development & actual source of needs identification. Culture is
way to life. It is defined as lubricants, oil & energy of transformation.
So, it should be preserved, if it is seen as a progressive form. In short this
includes:
-
Development with culture
-
Preservation of local culture & sub-culture
-
Use of indigenous knowledge in development
-
Respect & address the cultural elements
Assumptions
of People Responsive/Culture friendly Development:
-
Active people’s participation
-
Equal distribution of returns
-
Development by the people
-
Conservation & protection of local culture
-
Respect the people’s feeling
-
To enhance the level of living standard,
equality, justice & empowerment
-
Inclusive development policy
-
Respect the religious activities
-
Development based on actual needs of local
community
-
People centered development
Importance
of People Responsive/Culture friendly Development:
-
Culture friendly development is sustainable
-
Culture as the means of empowerment
-
Cultural freedom results creativity
-
Priority of local means, resources & culture
-
People’s participation in development work
-
Protection of cultural heritages
-
Democratic, self-dependent development
-
Inclusive green revolution
Exogenous
Development
Exogenous
development is that kind of development, in which the local peoples are
organized and mobilized, that concerns about the socio-cultural diversity. This
focuses in private, public & government partnership. Dominance of external
expertise in policy, objectivity & strategy formulation. The ultimate aim
of this kind of model is to end the vicious circle of poverty. Modernization in
capital, technology & labor power are the key elements of this model.
Donors or investors are the masters & locals are only consumers. Priority
to education, health, income, production, human rights equality, inclusiveness
& many more.
Features
of Exogenous Development
-
Governed/directed & controlled by external
agents
-
Dominance of external experts, specialists
-
Mobilization of external, internal resources
-
Short-term in nature
-
Based on growth in development
-
Co-action with local people
-
Priority to living standard
-
Dependent to donor agent
-
External technology, capital & human
resources/power
-
Less priority to local knowledge, skills &
culture
-
Mainly western model of development
Importance
of Exogenous Development
-
Awareness creation, skill development
-
Means of interaction between backward (locales)
& donors
-
Decrease in inequality & pressure to local
dwellers
-
Green revolution in agriculture with technology
& finance
-
Employment creation & economic modernization
-
Mainstreaming backward, marginalized &
deprived
-
Poverty alleviation & people’s participation
-
Local leadership development, organization,
mobilization & problems
-
International technology & diplomacy
Challenges
of Exogenous Development
-
Misuse of local resources & culture
-
Increase in dependency
-
Unequal distribution of development fruits
-
Exploitation by foreign country
-
Risk to local indigenous knowledge & skills
-
Loss of intellectual property right
-
Imbalance in environment
-
Increase in social evils
-
It doesn’t give fishing technique but fish
Indigenous
Development
Indigenous development is that kind of
development, in which development activities are based on local culture,
rituals, technology & mechanism. It depends on concept of self-dependence.
Priority to local knowledge, skills and manpower is the main theme of the
approach.
Characteristics
of Indigenous Development:
-
Based on local indigenous knowledge
-
Bottom up approach
-
People’s initiative process
-
Based on native resources & technology
-
Based on self-help group
-
Development with own identity
-
Participation of local people in decision making
-
Multidimensional in nature
-
Based on day-to-day experience of local people
Importance
of Indigenous Development
-
Capacity building of local people
-
People-responsive & culture friendly
-
Social mobilization, people’s participation
& empowerment based
-
Bio-diversity conservation
-
Proper information about resources & means
-
Protection of indigenous knowledge, skills &
culture
-
Sustainability in development
-
Globalization
-
Self-dependence
-
Targeted to backward people
Challenges
of Indigenous Development
-
Development of traditionalism
-
Less employment opportunities
-
Lack of huge amount of capital
-
No competition in development
-
Static change in socio-economic condition
-
Lack of modern technology & equipment
-
Lack of foreign aid etc.
Self-Help
Development
A self-help
program is a small, economically homogenous & affinity group of rural poor,
voluntarily formed, to save & mutually agree to contribute to a common
fund, to be lent to its members as per group decision for their socio-economic
development.
This is the
search for an individual path toward development suited to the traditions of
each particular country as an alternative to the growth & world
market-oriented development strategy of eastern states.
Features
of Self-Help Group:
-
Equal status of membership
-
Voluntarily membership
-
Participatory planning
-
Education & training
-
Resource mobilization
-
Rotational leadership
-
Socially
viable
-
Self-management
-
Self-evaluation
-
Organizational system
-
Economic right to concerned group
-
Continuous learning process
Self-Reliance
Development
This concept
was emerged in 1950s in India that Mahatma Gandhi used in anti-English
movement. This, later, is followed by Julius Nyere in 60s of Tanzania. But this
only developed as an approach after 1970s in the discussion about the third
worlds’ dependency in Latin America.
This
approach focuses more on qualitative lifestyle such as; income, health,
knowledge, participation, security, capacity, right, entitlement, freedom,
confidence etc.
According to
Dr. Y. Nayudarmma “Self-reliance implies self-competitive, resourcefulness,
problem solving capacity, the ability to discern & wisdom to use
knowledge.”
-
Production for basic need get priorities over
others
-
Mass participation can be ensured
-
Local factors can be better utilized
-
Creativity can be stimulated
-
Local conditions can be more compatible
-
Diversity of development can be promoted
-
Ability to resist dependency increases
-
Mal-development can be corrected
Participative
& Participatory Development
People
centered development activities, plan formulation to implementation is done in
full participation of the people. Bottom-up approach is prioritized
PRA has been
widely used for participatory development but by its nature & content PRA
seeks to promote participation in development.
|
Participatory
Development
|
Participation
in development
|
|
It
approaches conventional project practice in a more participatory &
sensitive manner.
|
It entails
genuine efforts to engage in practices that openly & radically encourage
people’s participation.
|
|
It is
introduced within the pre-determined project framework.
|
It seems
from the understanding that poverty is caused by structural factors. It
attempts to alter some of the causes that lead to poverty.
|
|
It is a
top-down from of participation in the sense that the management of the
project defines where, when & how much the people can participate.
|
It is a
bottom-up approach of participation in the sense that the local people have
full control over the process & the project provides necessary flexibility.
|
|
It is more
prevalent practice & dominant in terms of resource available.
|
It is more
prevalent with NGOs than with the government.
|
Sustainability
of development depends on the aid helping people to act for their own
development. Participation is concerned from ‘token involvement of people’ to
‘autonomous decision making by popular organization at local level’.
“People’s
participation is conceptually integrated with redistribution of economic &
political power is the process of development & is therefore subject to
value judgment.” – M.R. Ghomeny
As a
conclusion, Participation means:
-
Voluntary contribution of people
-
Process of increasing responsibility &
awareness
-
Active & unbiased (inclusive)
-
Self-determined change
Importance
of Participative & Participatory Development in Rural development:
“Rural
development is impossible if it doesn’t take place in the mind of rural men.”
–A.K. Carenross
-
Increase in efficiency
-
Effectiveness
-
Self-reliance
-
Coverage
-
Sustainability
-
Inclusive
-
Mass orientation
-
Empowerment
Constraints
of Participation:
-
Bureaucracy oriented development process &
administration
-
Rigid socio-cultural structure
-
Political interference
-
Lack of empowering local organization
-
Gender discrimination, poverty, linguistic
problem etc.
Participatory
Development Process:
-
Development by local people & mobilization,
utilization of local means and resources. (Self-centered)
-
Bottom-up approach
-
Local peoples are sole & whole of the
process
This is the process of self-dependence
& empowerment of the local people by participating in each & every
steps of project cycle.
Participation must be in:
-
Problem identification, information collection,
research & evaluation process
-
Concept, plan creation & appraisal of future
plan
-
Technological research & policy analysis
-
Resource, formulation, mobilization, program
management, implementation & evaluation
-
profit (fruit) distribution
Globalization
& Localization
Globalization
is the process of mainstreaming the national market in international market.
Globalization is a free movement of goods, services, people, capital &
information across national boundaries.
G - Goods
& services
L –
Localization & globalization
O –
Opportunities
B – Balance
A – Aid
through trade
L –
Liberalization
I –
Interdependency
Z/S -
Satisfaction
A -
Advancement
T –
Technology transfer
I –
Instrument
O –
Optimization
N – Network
Features
of Globalization:
-
Capital, technology, culture, labor,
information… are as national, international & regional agenda
-
Attraction through competition & opportunity
-
Consumption of qualitative goods
-
Dominance of rich, elites & developed
nations
-
National change in means ownership
Liberalization & marketization
Responsible
Agencies for Globalization:
-
International organizations (World Bank, IMF,
UNDP …)
-
Foreign aid
-
Means of communication
-
Tourism & tourists
-
Education
-
Human right concept
-
Multinational companies
Key
Aspects of Globalization:
-
Open & free movement of goods & services
-
Reduce taxation in trade
-
Regard international investment as national
investment
-
World Trade Organization as its head
-
Transfer of technology
-
Priority to invest in international market
Strengths
of Globalization:
-
Open market
-
Economic growth
-
Increase in work efficiency
-
Affordable price & quality secures
consumers’ right
-
Specialization
-
Reduces traditional thoughts
-
Attraction to foreign investment
-
Increase in employment opportunities
-
Human right, democracy, law, good governance
etc.
-
Consumerism
Weaknesses
of Globalization:
-
Unequal competition (developed vs.
underdeveloped)
-
Dominance to local knowledge, skill &
technology
-
International intervention
-
Dependency and poverty
-
Lack of welfare
-
Intervention in national integration
-
Exploitation of valuable resources
-
Economic expansionism
Globalization
in Nepal:
Globalization
in Nepal appeared in 1978 by Structural Adjustment Program (SAP) implementation
by IMF. This mainly focuses in Balance in Payment in Nepal.
Liberalization
& market economy attracted multinational companies’ investment after 1990’s
(2046) reestablishment of democracy. Open market policy, labor movement
increased globalization. IT as the means for globalization in education,
economy, health & other socio-economic aspects.
Partnership
between government, public & private was prioritized. And in 2004 Nepal
became one of the member of WTO.
Positive
aspects of Globalization in Nepal:
-
Expansion of science & technology
-
Modernization of education, health, tourism etc.
-
International investment in infrastructure
development
-
Development of information technology
-
Globalization of Nepali goods & services
-
Employment opportunities & increase in
National Income
Negative
Aspects of Globalization in Nepal:
-
Unbalance in payment
-
Abolition of internal production
-
Exploitation of elites
-
Government may become weak
-
Environmental exploitation
-
Intervention to local culture, knowledge &
technology
-
Increase in dependency
-
Increase in social evils
-
External political & economic intervention
Mitigating
Measures of Negative aspects of Globalization:
-
Sustainability in development
-
Use of renewable resources
-
Consumption of local products
-
Industrial employment creation
-
Promotion of indigenous skills & knowledge
-
Promotion of tourism & foreign currency
-
Food security
-
Mainstreaming backward
-
Subsidies provision
Localization:
‘Think Globally
– Act Locally’
Localization
is a concept that promotes & prioritize locally available means &
resources for local consumption & utilization. It focuses in mobilization
of local manpower, human resources, natural resources, local techniques, tools
& skills to make rural market able to compete with global products.
Participation
of local people in market & other developmental work is must, they
contribute in each steps of every activities. Conservation & promotion of
local culture, knowledge & skills is the theme of this concept. In Nepal,
local self-governance act-2055 insists localization in real sense. Likewise,
Interim Constitution 2062/63 has focused in decentralization, localization.
Finally, localization promotes utilization of local culture, knowledge to
compete with global market with local leadership & independently,
spontaneous market.
Essential
elements of Localization:
-
Education & awareness in local level
-
Development of local technology
-
Self-employment creation
-
Program for rural development
-
Access, participation of local people
-
Conservation of local language, culture, skills
and knowledge …
Positive
aspects of Localization:
-
Local production, consumption and solution to
local problems & evils
-
Priority of local means & resources in
development
-
Conservation of local culture, organization
& livelihood…
-
Priority to backward, ethnic groups
-
Right to local people over resources
-
Reducing poverty
-
Rural-oriented planning & development
activities
-
People centered investment
-
Local needs & demands
-
Optimum utilization of resources
-
Local leadership development
-
Development for people by people
-
Sustainability in development
-
Responsiveness of local people
Negative
Aspects of Localization:
-
Traditionalism
-
Lack of competency
-
Regional backwardness
-
Intervention if resources, capital lacks
-
Priorities by globalization may reduce
-
Subsistence rather the growth oriented
-
Protective than competitive
-
Dominance of local elites
-
Labor oriented technology doesn’t allows fast
paced development
-
Lack of global market information
-
Lack of new invention
-
Possibility of misuse/no use of resources
Globalization
& Localization should focus on these aspects for development process:
-
Human resources development
-
Regional balance
-
Competitiveness
-
Global peace
-
Equality & equity
-
Poverty alleviation
-
Eco-friendly development
-
Cost effective production
-
Priority to invention of new technology
-
Knowledge based society
-
Knowledge based industry
-
Political stability
-
Population management
-
Social integration
-
Capacity building
-
Social justice
-
Inclusive development
-
Economic development
Rural Community Development
“A rural
community may be defined as a group of people permanently residing in a
definite geographical area who, having developed a certain community
consciousness & cultural, social & economic relations feel that they
are separate from other communities.” – J.H., Kolb & Brunner
Characteristics
of Rural Community:
-
Definite locations
-
Common life
-
Common rules & system
-
Community sentiment
-
Subsistence economy
-
Social equality
-
Close relation with nature
-
Importance to family & neighborhood
Meaning
& Concept of Rural Community Development
The concept
of rural community development was emerged in 1940s. Then, British government
applied firstly in Ghana & the government had mentioned “Community
development as a process intended to mobilize the labor or rural & urban communities
in support of national government objectives to build social & physical
infrastructures & increase in self-reliance.”
According to
UN “Community development is a process designed to create condition of economic
& social progress for whole of the community with its active participation
& fullest possible reliance on community’s initiative.”
As a whole
the characteristics are as follows:
-
Establishment of a co-ordination team at the
local level
-
Regular contact & dialogue between the
community development team & the villagers
-
Formation of local groups at the village level
Y.C. James
Yen has mentioned the following opinion for rural community development:
-
Go to the people
-
Live with them, learn from them
-
Plan with the people, work with the people
-
Start with what they know, build on what they
have
-
Teach by showing, learn by doing
-
Not a showcase but a pattern (model)
-
Not piecemeal but integrated
-
Not odds & ends but a system
-
Not to conform but to transform
-
Not relief but release
Importance
in Rural Development
-
Appraisal of rural socio-economic & cultural
condition
-
Listen to the demand of the local people
-
Self-reliance through education, health,
agriculture…
-
Employment opportunities creation
-
Poverty alleviation
-
Practical knowledge
-
Change in traditional, rigid customs &
cultures
-
People’s participation in development work
-
Mobilization & utilization of local
resources
Rural
Community Development Approaches
a) Top-down
Approach
o
Plan
formation at central level & implementation by the bureaucrats
o
Complete framework with the help of concerning
scholars
o
Evaluation of development program by external
expertise
o
Survey by the cradles from center
b) Human
Capital Development Approach
o
Capacity building of the backward groups, so
they can live self-sufficient life through the utilization of their
skills/capacity.
o
Priority to eradicate poverty & elite
dependency
c) Bottom-up
Approach
o
Plan formulation in the selected field/community
o
Public awareness
o
Wise utilization of means, resources &
skills of local level
o
Empowerment & self-confidence through
self-monitoring/evaluation
o
Formation of social capital gradually
d) Integrated
Development Approach
o
Popularity during 1970s
o
Qualitative & quantitative change
o
This method is developed as a package
o
Multi-dimensional (Triangulation)
o
Relation with development policy, strategy &
program
o
Positive impact on holistic community
development
e) Right
Based Development Approach
o
Right to development
o
Human capacity building
f) Self-reliance
Development Approach
o
Empowering people through self-practicing
o
Development by local people for themselves
g) Need
Based Development Approach
o
Emerged in 1970s
o
Priority to basic needs according to time &
place
o
Qualitative change
Rural
Community Development Methods & Strategies
a) Education
-
Learning by doing
-
Practical knowledge
Priorities as mentioned by scholars:
-
Local needs
-
Socio-cultural diversity
-
Co-ordination
-
Democratic method
b) Extension
of Organization
-
Fullest people’s participation
-
Change in traditional norms & values
-
Effective in decision making
-
Empowering local people
-
Can be applied in all places
c) Social/Community
Mobilization
-
Organizational empowerment
-
Development of poor & marginalized
-
Participation in income generating activities
-
Equal distribution of means & resources
-
Holistic development
-
Development of human resources & capacity
Rural
Community Participation
“Community
participation is an active process by which beneficiary or client groups
influence the direction & execution of a development project with a view to
enhancing their well-being in terms of income, personal growth, self-reliance
or other values they cherish.” – Paul (1987)
“Participation
is a growing family of approaches & methods to enable local people to
share, enhance & analyze their knowledge of life & condition and to
plan, act, monitor & evaluate.” – Robert Chamber
As a whole
community participation is a complex process of gathering various individual
opinions regarding specific case or event & developing we-feeling with
ownership over achievements.
Types of
Community Participation
Somesh Kumar
has mentioned the types of participation in his publication ‘Methods for
Community Participation’ 2007:24 as follows:
a) P1
– Passive Participation
o
One sided participation
o
No responsibility of people
b) P2
– Participation in information giving
o
Participation only in providing information
c) P3
– Participation by consultation
o
Review of plan & policies in participation
of people
o
Participation if only outsider calls people
d) P4
– Participation for material incentives
o
Contribution of physical property or things by
people
o
Participation if only benefit can be
enjoyed/utilized
e) P5
– Functional Participation
o
Formation of an organization by outsider
o
Participation as organization but not in primary
stages
f) P6
– Interactive Participation
o
Participation in complete project cycle
o
Responsibility taking by participants
g) P7
– Self Mobilization
o
Independent from outsider, only for consultation
o
Self-decision in every steps
o
Local knowledge, skill, technology
Resource
Mobilization & Development
Resource
mobilization is a process of using tools & techniques for achieving
objectives. Mobilizing resources is resource mobilization.
Types of
Resources
a) Natural
Resources
b) Human
Resources
c) Financial
Resources
d) Social
Resources
e) Managerial
Resources
f) Information
Resources
In the
process of resource mobilization, the following points should be considered
-
Resource identification, survey & noting
-
Scope/area of resource utilization
-
Right & responsibility of user
-
Estimation of investment
-
Resource management capacity
-
Level of people’s participation
-
Socio-economic status of people
-
Strategy to mobilize resources
-
Satisfaction, response & proper utilization
Importance
of Resource Mobilization in Rural Development
-
Increase in employment opportunities
-
Social basis for capital formation
-
Poverty alleviation
-
Self-reliance
-
Self-esteem
-
Equality
-
Increase in People’s participation
-
Modernization of agriculture
-
Increase in production & productivity
-
Development in living standard/quality life
-
Eradication of rigid customs, values
Concept,
Meaning & Definition of Social Participation
Participation
means the complex & dynamic strategy of being involve in some organization
or institution to build or increase capacity, skill, & knowledge for
achieving specific objective/s.
Process
of Social Participation:
Input: Process: Output:
Assumptions
of Social Participation
-
Capacity building
-
Environment management
-
Development of technology
-
Organization building & development
-
Women empowerment
-
Mobilization of capital
Elements
of Social Participation
-
Skill
-
Small Capital
-
Group
Stages of
Social Participation Process
-
Appraisal & rapport building
-
Social analysis
-
Social capital & group formation
-
Social action by group or CBOs
-
Alliance building
-
Social reflection
Concept
& Meaning of Community Empowerment
The
expansion of freedom of choice & action to shape one’s life is empowerment.
The word ‘empowerment’ was fashioned from 1980s.
Empowerment
processes are action which both build individual & collective assets, &
improve the efficiency & fairness of the organizational & institutional
contexts which govern the use of the assets.
“Empowerment
is the process to growing power, both control over external resources, &
growth in inner self-confidence & capability.” – Sen (1997)
The
empowerment includes:
-
Participation & decision making in concerned
subject matter
-
Capability building
-
Capital formation & mobilization for quality
life
-
Co-operation with other organizations
-
Promotion of local resources &
socio-economic development
-
Self-confidence building that ‘we are doing for
ourselves’
Dimensions
of Community Empowerment
-
Economic dimension
-
Socio-cultural dimension
-
Political dimension
-
Psychological dimension
Process
of Community Empowerment
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Empowerment
& Rural Development
-
Social justice
-
Inclusive democracy
-
Freedom, equality & Human Right development
-
Sustainable mobilization of resources
-
Educational awareness
-
Development of gender equality
-
Nation building & Integration
-
Eradication or discrimination
Rural
Development Policies in Nepal
Policy
is:
-
Road map
-
Set of decisions & directions
-
Purposed working method
-
Objective & practice oriented framework
Features
of Rural Development Policies
-
Beneficial
-
Transparent
-
Pro-poor
-
Complex
-
Open to change & improvement
-
Clarity & economic
Importance
of Rural Development Policy
-
Agriculture development
-
Creation of employment
-
Empowerment of deprived groups
-
Economic growth
-
Development of physical infrastructures
-
Development of cottage & small-scale
industries
-
Ensure environmental sustainability
Rural
Development Strategies
Strategy is
not a set of a magic rules but a system of available resources.
Skill X
Vision X Capacity X Technology X Resources X Utilization = Rural Development
Rural
development is a strategy designed to improve the economic & social life of
a specific group of people, the rural poor. It involves the extension of the
benefits of development to the poorest among those who seek a livelihood in
rural areas.
Methods
of Rural Development
-
Modernization & marketization of agriculture
-
Increase in access
-
Technological advancement
-
Equal access to health, education & other
basic services
-
Targeted to backward, marginalized…
-
Utilization of local resources
-
Insist to rural-urban relation
-
Increase in employment opportunities
-
Formation & utilization of capital
-
Diversity & specificity in production
-
Expansion of rural market
-
Local people on decision making
-
Self-reliance orientation
-
Change in knowledge, attitude & practice
Rural
Development Practices in Nepal
a) Before
2007: Peace, security & taxation, formation of Agriculture Council but not
active, construction of rural roads, taps, bridges, religious stations etc. in
the direction of head-of-village. No provision of plan.
b) 2007-2017: Establishment of democracy, Tribhuvan Gram
Bikas program by Block Development Officer (BDO). Programs in three steps:
Nucleolus, Dehat & Block (VDC). This was mainly concentrated in fertilizer,
seeds distribution.
c) 2017-2046: Panchayat system, Panchayat Bikas Program –
institutional development, social mobilization & change in attitude.
Formation of 14 zones & 75 districts, zone-head, district-head &
village-head, but no programs only legalization of Panchayat. The programs in
this period can be classified as:
i.
Area based:
Small area development program, Integrated Rural Development Program, Remote
Area development program…
ii.
Target based: Small farmer development program,
Women development program & Praja development program…
iii.
Sector based: Fruit farming, animal husbandry,
crops farming etc…
But,
-
Lack of people’s participation
-
Centralized
-
Lack of responsibility
-
Dependency on bureaucrats
-
No access of poor & backward…
d) 2046-Now: Multi-party system, formation of VDC, DDC
& Metropolitan, Local Self Governance Act-2055, decentralization, poverty
alleviation program, social empowerment & mobilization programs,
agriculture debt, self-employment program, investment in social capital &
infrastructure building…
Rural
Development Programs in Nepal
a) Village
Development Program
This program was launched in 1952 with
the aim of self-reliance & self-dependence of the rural people. Economic
& technological assistance by America & India, whole Nepal was divided
into 150 blocks, priority to public participation. Enacted from 1953-1961, that
focused on activities formation for rural development, expansion of programs,
co-operative schools & foster homes. The provision of Ministry at central
level, Village Development Board in village, Block Development Office at block
level was in practice. This program was stopped with the political change in
the country.
b) Panchayat
Development Program
Social mobilization,
institutionalization of development & change in attitude were the main
focus of various programs. Remote Area Program, Small Area Development Program,
Saving & Credit development, Land Reform, Back to Village programs are some
of the major programs in this period. Likewise, trainings to women,
agricultural training center, and political participation are launched in this
period.
c) Integrated
Rural Development Program (IRDP)
Working sectors are agriculture,
irrigation, drinking water, rural road, schools, and income generating
activities. 19 IRDPs were implemented during the period of 1974 to this time.
From these programs rural dwellers of 48 districts were mainly profited. The
aid for these programs were provided by Asian Development Bank, DENIDA, Swiss
Government, German aid, Netherland Government & other 13 agencies. But
doesn’t met targeted aim.
d) Small
Farmer Development Program (SFDP)
Firstly in the help of Agriculture
Development Bank, this program was tested in Dhunche & Mahendranagar in
2032 B.S. After the success, the expansion of this program is increased.
Nepalese Government, IFAD, ADB, UNICEF, UNFPA, USAID, GIZ, CareNepal, EU, Ford
Foundation are the economic aid provider for these programs. About 12 lakh
people were benefited from this program until 2052/53.
e) Rural
Self-reliance Program
Rural Self Reliance Fund is the first
institution to provide small scale debt in Nepal. It was established in 2047
Falgun 17. Mainly this provides debt to pro-poor, backward people.
f) Production
Credit for Rural Women Program
With the objectives of poverty
alleviation Nepal Rastra Bank implemented this program in 2039 with the help of
Ministry of Local Development. And agricultural debt by IFAD, the amount was 23
corer & 46 lakh.
g) Remote
Area Development Program (RADP)
Enhancing socio-economic condition of
22 eastern districts.
h) Micro-credit
for Rural Women Program (MRWP)
Completion of PCRW, by ADB in 2055
Bhadra 30, economic debt agreement with ADB. Priority to women in agriculture,
But not successful.
i)
Community Underground Irrigation Project (CUIP)
20 years plan with ADB in 12 districts
of Terai. Later many other organization participated in investment.
j)
Build Our Village Ourselves
Led by UCPN in 2051 B.S. 5 lakh to
each village in 6 months increased from 3 lakh, Bottom-up planning.
k) District
Partnership Program
Netherland Government, socio-economic
development of Karnali dwellers.
l)
Special Area Development Program
25 districts, backward people, rural
road, irrigation, animal & herbs development, social mobilization, income
generating activities.
m) Rural
Community Infrastructure Program
World Food Program, 33 districts, fish
farming, irrigation, road & agro-forestry…
n) Upkeshit,
Utpidit & Dalit Community Program
Educational scholarship, health,
sanitary, drinking water & 41 foster homes…
o) Poverty
Alleviation Fund (PAF)
Objectives: Poverty below 10% in next 20 years, Making poverty half by 2015.
Concept
& Meaning of Organization
The word
‘organization’ was evolved from Greek word ‘Organon’ which means ‘tool’ or
‘instrument’. So, the organization is a group of people, dedicated to achieve
specific aim. In some cases this is understood as an administrative structure.
Formation of an organization requires certain rules, policies, strategies &
assumptions as well as objectives. This concept or practice can be understood
as the failure of a single person to achieve goals.
“Organization
is the form of every human association for the attainment of a common purpose.”
–T.D. Mooney
“Organization
are planned units deliberately structured for the purpose of attaining specific
goals.” –Amitai Etzoniae
“Organization
is a system of co-operative activities of two or more persons.” –Chester I.
Bernard
As a whole,
an organization is a medium to systematize the resources mobilization process
to gain specific goals.
Basic
Characteristics of Organization
-
Common objectives
-
Work/job division
-
Co-ordination
-
Relation of individuals
-
Hierarchy of authority
-
Task based
-
Combination of system & sub-system
-
Control over individual behavior
Basic
Elements of Organization
-
Common goals
-
Stability
-
Participation
-
Legitimacy
-
Feeling of unity
-
Achievement oriented
-
Clients
-
Leadership
-
Process
-
Communication
-
Physical & financial resources
Organization
Building Process & Empowerment
-
Recognition
-
Greater responsibility
-
Broad & multiple activities
-
Linkages
-
Legitimacy
The process of attaining these things
by some sort of group is called organization building process.
According to Riggs:
|
Basic
Aspects
|
Stage 1
|
Stage 2
|
Stage 3
|
Stage 4
|
Stage 5
|
|
Organization
|
Establishment
|
Development
|
Presenting
achievements
|
Institutionalization
|
Re-production
|
|
Bureaucracy
|
Entrance
|
Active
role
|
Entrepreneurship
|
Entrepreneurship
|
Productive
task
|
|
Consumer
|
Nobel/inert
|
Intelligence
|
Participation
|
Legitimacy
|
Acceptance
|
Table:
Organization building process.
Organizational
Building Model
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Source: Bhimdev
Bhatta, 2060
According to
Luther Grulick:
Empowerment
in Organization
Process of
capacity building or increasing is empowerment.
“Empowerment
is the process of gaining power, both control over external resources, &
growth in inner self-confidence & capability.” –Sen (1997)
Importance
of Empowerment in Organization
-
High level achievement & work-editing
-
Effective service & production
-
Increase in working capability of workers
-
Optimum utilization of available resources
-
Satisfaction of workers & consumers
-
Credibility & attraction of organization
-
To gain meaningful & fruitful goals easily
Induced
Organizations
This kind of
organizations are dependent in external expertise, resources or capital for
mobilizing & utilizing local human power & other means & resources.
These are controlled or supervised by external institutions such as I/NGOs and
other governmental organizations. Development works in partnership or in
co-ordination of external organization for optimum utilization of means &
resources & people’s partnership is the key factor of Induced
Organizations. This kind of organization appeared in Nepal after 1970s &
80s & national planning in governmental program; 2013 B.S.
Features
of Induced Organizations:
-
Directed or controlled by external agencies
-
Participation of external expertise
-
External & internal resources mobilization
-
Short-term in nature
-
Outsider as facilitator
-
Co-operation with local community
-
Priority to life-standard
-
Dependency on donor agencies
Importance
of Induced Organizations in Rural Development:
-
Hardships to local organizations will be reduced
-
Awareness & capacity building
-
Low economic & administrative pressure
-
Priority to backward, marginalized groups
-
Pressure to local organizations
-
Mainstreaming backward people
-
Modern technology & expertise
-
Local leadership development
-
Perfectness in development activities
-
Optimum utilization or resources
Indigenous
Organizations
This kind of
organizations are the protector & promoter of local culture &
traditions. Local knowledge, skill, capacity & technology for conservation
of specific kind of culture & rituals in local area is the motto of these
organizations. Locally developed, without support of external parties are the
indigenous organizations
“Indigenous
organizations are those which are devoted to economic & social aspects of
rural community.” – W.B.
“The idea of
small groups of users banding together as neighborhood, families, productive
activities, common property management or public works development is a
well-established traditions in Nepal.” –Messerschmitt
At last,
local knowledge, techniques, cultures, religions & specific caste or other
identities are the soul of these organizations.
Here are
some of the indigenous organizations of Nepal:
a) Dhikur:
-
Economic organization of western Nepalese
Thakali, Bhote, Lowa & Tibetans.
-
Economic mobilization, saving & investment
in banking style, that led by ‘Dhikur Aama’ in Gurung & ‘Gopa’ in Thakali
& Bhote
-
Generally membership of 10-30 persons
b) Rodhi:
-
Institution of Gurung of western Nepal
-
Gathering of youths in evening & sharing
feelings & entertainment
c) Bheja:
-
Economic & socio-cultural organization of
Gurung of western Nepal
-
Religious rituals, agricultural works by
collective effort, that is led by ‘Mukhiya’
d) Guthi:
-
Religious organization of Newars of Kathmandu
valley
-
Participation of every household & mutual
relation, co-action
e) Parma:
-
Labor exchange system of all
-
Gurung-Nogyar & Limbu-Pareli
f) Dharma
Panchayat:
-
Local cultural governing body
-
Judgment & justice in local issues by
‘Mukhiya’
-
Local solution of socio-economic, cultural &
political cases
Features
of Indigenous Organizations:
-
Culture specific
-
Primarily community based
-
No formal rules & regulations
-
Participative environment
-
Seniority based leadership
-
Self-help in nature
-
Homogeneity of ethnic groups
-
Decisions on agreement & discussion
-
Permanent & temporary
Types of
Indigenous Organizations
-
Agricultural
-
Forest work
-
Credit
-
Political
-
Religious
-
Socio-economic activities
Leader
& Leadership Building in Rural Development
Sociologists
say that leadership is the use of power or effect on people or groups. Mass
& public support for leader is must & that is must not to miss element
of leadership
Leader is
someone who can influence others & who cash managerial authority that leads
process.
Leadership
is the well-being ness of person. The capacity, power, & influencing art of
a leader is called leadership. This quality or art changes the diverse
intention of public & directs, controls & empowers people for achieving
specific goals. Ability or acting as a leader is leadership. Only good leader
always promotes welfare & wise situation-handling capacity. This is value
loaded term.
“Leadership
is the art of coordinating and motivating individual of groups to achieve
desired ends.” –Piffner
Types of
Leadership
-
Political leader
-
Democratic leader
-
Autocratic leader
-
Revolutionary leader
-
Reformer
Leader
-
Diplomatic
Leader
Qualities
of Leadership
-
Curiosity
-
Creativity
-
Communication
-
Character
-
Courage
-
Conviction
-
Charisma
-
Competent
-
Common sense
-
Imagination power
-
Flexibility
-
Foresighted
Role of
Leadership in Organizational Development & Social Change
There are
many problems in society. All of them can’t be solved at once but for its
solution, we can’t ignore the importance of organization. No organization can
achieve its goal without a good leader. Leaders are the key factor for
organizational functions; they are means to change the society. In case of
development activities, sound relation & interdependence with proper
functioning is required in both organization & leader. Organization is a
medium to mobilize & utilize economic, human and capital means and
resources. No organization can function without leader. That’s why leader is
dynamic and live key-holder of an organization and social change.
Role of
Rural Leadership in Organizational Development
An
organization has its goals and aim. To grab the aim, there requires means &
resources. Only by the optimum utilization of means and resources, aim can be
achieved. For the best, optimum & wise utilization, there is need of a good
leader. The roles of leader in organization can be presented as below:
-
As an entrepreneur
-
As a disturbance handler
-
As a resource allocator
This roles
gives significance to a leader. They mainly do:
-
Goal emphasizing
-
Support
-
Work facilitation
According to
Peter Drucker, Good leadership brings out the best in people with it ordinary
people can do extraordinary things. Likewise, Robert Kreiter mentions,
Leadership is a social influence process in which the leader seeks the
voluntary participation of subordinates in an efforts to each organizational
objectives. Generally the role of a rural leader in an organization can be mentioned
as below:
-
Goal setting
-
Organizational function
-
Co-ordination & direction
-
Developing team work
-
Representative
-
Motivation
-
Use of power
-
Time management
-
Executive function
-
Formulation of plans
-
Policy making
-
As a mediator
-
Control over internal phenomena
-
Provision of reward & punishment
-
Show the ideal/utopia
-
Demonstrate the well path
As a whole, to change the traditional
& rigid cultures & perceptions into development oriented.
Role or
Leadership in Social Change & Rural Development
Any
alteration, difference or modification that takes place in a situation or in an
object through time can be called change. And the term social change is used to
indicate the changes that takes place in human interaction & interrelations.
Social
change is a natural & dynamic process, it never ends, till the existence of
human beings. Generally, society refers to the relation, interaction between
individuals, so the changes in their mode of interaction, relation is called
social change. Social change is only a part of cultural change. Cultural change
includes change in art, science, technology, philosophy, knowledge, beliefs,
rituals, customs & traditions. Therefore all social changes are cultural
changes, but all cultural changes need not necessarily be the social change.
In case of
development, leader as a mediator is must essential factor. Only through a good
leader, the fruits of development can be delivered to backward, deprived &
marginalized people that promotes welfare in society. There is a saying that if
you get the right man in the leadership job and all your problems would be
solved. Like that, only good leaders can promotes social change & rural
development in real sense.
Current Discourses on Rural
Development in Nepal
Agriculture
& Rural Development
Rural Development
is a strategy of socio-cultural change of backward, countryside area. One of
the main feature of rural area is its dependence on natural resources. Most of
the people are engaged in agriculture, so rural development would be impossible
without agricultural modernization & development.
Rural people
don’t use modern tools & techniques for agricultural production. They apply
traditional tools & techniques. In case of Nepal, the later generation use
what their forefathers left to them, such as Halo, Kodali, Kuto etc. Using this
kind of tools, prioritize traditionalism, decreases production &
productivity. As an example use of tractor instead of Kuto & Kodalo is a
step towards modernization of agriculture.
Modernization
in agriculture is only possible through the use of modern, less time consuming
tools & techniques. Rural people are supposed to produce only seasonal
crops, fruits etc. So, by applying modern method unseasonal production could be
possible. Modernizing agriculture would change the structure of rural market as
well as their living standard. This increases productivity, and decreases
poverty and economic dependency on elites of society, which contributes to fill
up the gap between rich & poor.
In the
context of Nepal, agriculture is soul of rural life and backbone of national
economy. Most of the people are dependent on agriculture for their survival.
Around 32% of total GDP is contributed by agriculture in Nepal. More than 86%
population still depends on agriculture. They are applying traditional
knowledge because of lack of access to modern tools & techniques. There are
many problems in Nepalese agriculture, such as unscientific land distribution,
division of land, lack of irrigation facility, lack of manure on time &
market problems. So there has been some programs launched, despite that there
is no drastic change happening in agriculture production. In the decade of
1990s, Nepal was listed as least productive compared to other South Asian
countries. This kind of devastating situation is promoting poverty &
unemployment. A report shows 31% of total population in Nepal belongs under
poverty line, and most of them are rural farmers during 2060/61.
Government
of Nepal has provision of long term plan that is Agriculture Perspective Plan
(AAP) with the aim of reducing poverty & increasing agricultural
productivity from 0.5 to 3% within next 20 years. Regional balance is another
concern of this plan. It has prioritized animal husbandry & fruit farming
in Mountain & Hill while Terai is suitable for food crops. For the
achievement of aim, three areas of main concern are:
-
Expansion of irrigation facilities
-
Market promotion through development of rural
transportation & road
-
Increase in production through utilization of
modern technology
-
Availability of improved seeds and fertilizer
But due to
the lack of political commitment, regularity, no need identification of local
people, lack of co-ordination among concerned groups & weak monitoring
& evaluation the aim is susceptible to meet on time. Despite the plan, there
is increase in food crisis & rural poverty. Nepal was agro-exporting nation
during 1980s but in 1990s this changed into importing country. So, for the
development of the whole country, rural agricultural development is
indispensable.
Farming
system is traditional, lack of use of modern & scientific tools and
techniques are the main problems of Nepalese agriculture. Less contact and
relation with other third countries except India & lack of knowledge on
global market including high production costs are compelling Nepali market to
be exiled form the world market & economy. Less competitive goods,
unrefined production, lack of communication, transportation doesn’t allow to
promote internal productions. So, the modernization of agriculture is inevitable
factor for the development of the country’s economy.
In the
context of less production & productivity of agriculture sector in Nepal,
here we will analyze the geographical impact for this situation.
Geographically
Nepal is divided into three main regions. Mountain (4877-8848m) (35% of Nepal)
have only 2% of cultivable land. In the other side Hill (610-4877m) (42% of
Nepal) have only 10% cultivable land. And Terai (59-610m) (23% of Nepal) have
40% cultivable land of its total.
Including
this factor there are many diversities in Nepalese socio-cultural scenario that
also directly influences the trend of agriculture production.
Traditional
farming is the base for subsistence living standard. Agriculture is not only an
occupation in Nepalese society, it is directly related with local culture &
rituals. These customs do not allow specification in production. Average
land-holding is decreasing due to the fragmentation of land. This statistics
shows only 0.16 hector in Hilly & 0.115 hector per person in Upper Hilly
region. This trend is a major factor for the starvation & vicious circle of
poverty. That’s why institutional effort is essential.
It is
complex to modernize agriculture and in the context of developing nations it is
more difficult. It takes great effort and investment to change subsistence
farming trend into market-oriented. But there is no any way to get out of it,
if this sector uplifts, automatically the national economy will strengthen.
Characteristics
of Nepalese Agriculture
-
Dependency on monsoon
-
Traditional farming system
-
Subsistence farming
-
Unemployed occupation
-
Excessive pressure on agricultural land
-
Unequal distribution of land (64% people have
10% land & 4% people have 39% land)
-
Fragmented land holding
-
Dual ownership (land owner & tenant/farmer)
-
Dominance of food crops (91% land-food crops
& 9% land-cash crops)
-
Labor intensive farming
Importance
of Agriculture in Rural Development
Agriculture
sector is an engine of economic development. Agriculture is the economic engine
of rural development and industry of all industry. More than 2.1 billion people
resides under poverty line, they dwell in rural area. In this context Gunnar
Myrdal says, it is in the agriculture sector that the battle for long term
economic development will be lost or won.
-
Main source of livelihood
-
Main source of national income
-
Source of food supply
-
Basis for industry
-
Basis for livestock farming
-
Source of rural revenue
-
Source of foreign trade
-
Base for market extension
-
Base for nation development
And,
-
Providing more food to rapidly growing
population
-
Providing raw materials for industries
-
To import capital goods through agricultural
exports
-
To increase rural income
-
Providing productive employment
-
Socio-economic welfare
Problems
of Nepalese Agriculture
-
Backward technology
-
Indebtedness of farmers
-
Lack of irrigation facility
-
Lack of credit for agriculture
-
Lack of transportation & communication
-
Lack of agricultural research
-
Lack of store house
-
Lack of seeds & fertilizer
-
Unorganized agriculture market
-
Dual ownership in agriculture
Measures
of Solving Agricultural Problems
-
Expansion of irrigation facilities
-
Agriculture research
-
Control in population growth
-
Development of transportation &
communication
-
Provision of credit facilities
-
Mechanization
-
Technological progress
-
Provision of improved seeds & fertilizer
-
Management of agriculture market
-
Management of store house
Especially
Nepalese Agriculture Movement forwards following demands;
-
Revolutionary land reform
-
Agriculture out of WTO
-
Food security & reducing starvation
-
Night class for farmers & video streaming
-
Provision of insurance
-
Investment & debt in low principle
-
Price fixation of agro-products
-
Social security & basic land holding of
farmers
-
Land use policy & suitable farming
-
Provision of limitation for personal land use
-
Agro-forestry development
-
Provision of agriculture service center &
vet. (animals’ Doctor)
-
Organized
agricultural co-operation
-
Bio-diversity & intellectual property
conservation
-
Rural electrification & cold store
-
Agricultural road construction
-
Poverty alleviation & reduce unemployment
-
Agricultural modernization & self-dependence
Gender
and Rural Development
Sex-
Biological difference between male & female
“Sex is a
way of distinguishing male & female members of species, usually by
referencing in their reproductive functions. Sex refers to coitus on
intercourse, an act that can result in reproduction. Sex refers to the
genitals.” – Lerner Advanced Dictionary
Gender-
Socio-cultural role of male and female
Gender may
be difference within same sex according to time, society and situation. But in
this topic, gender mainly focuses to female. And we discuss about women &
rural development in preceding texts.
There has
been many exercises done for the equality between men & women. In 1970s
Women in Development (WID) program focused on the participation of women in
development work and fruits distribution to them too, which helps for the
equality of both women & men. And in late 1970s Women & Development
(WAD) program was forwarded, which insisted in equal participation of women in
development works as men do. After this program, the concept of gender and
development in 1980s, focused on equal participation of men and women for
equitable development. So, the word ‘Gender’ expresses ‘the equality between
men and women’.
By birth,
men and women are treated in different ways and given them specific roles
because of difference in sex. Fundamental biological characteristics of men and
women is sex. And the role provided to each separate sex by society is called
gender. So, the gender is the role & this may be different within same sex
in different society & situation. Gender is socio-culturally constructed.
Society expects some roles on the basis of difference in sex, this is called
gender.
According to
Oakley & Rogers “Gender is socially constructed roles and responsibilities
assigned to men and women in a given culture/society & localities based
upon their societal/cultural structures, gender is learned behavior,
non-permanent that changes over time. It is social construct, independent of biology.”
According to
WB (2000) “Gender refers to socially constructed roles and socially learned
behaviors & expectation associated with females & males.”
“Gender is
socially and culturally determined differences in behavior, role & status
of men and women.” –C.S. Smith
Gender
Equity
Men and
women are not same in biological sense, but treating them equally on the basis
of norms, values, psychologically & socio-culturally is gender equity. And
their justifiable & unbiased access to economic means and resource is
equity. “Equity indicates a kind of justice of fair treatment. Equality
indicates sameness or homogeneity.” –C. Doglas (1975)
Equity is a
strategy/way to equality by positive discrimination with priority to backward.
Gender
Equality
Participation
of men and women without any kind of discrimination. Both of them have equal
right, responsibility and opportunities.
“Gender
equality is not a complicated idea. It’s simple: women must have a same rights
as men & discrimination has to stop.” –DFID
“Gender equality
refers to norms, values, attitudes & perceptions require to attain equal
status between women and men. Gender equity refers to fairness in which women
& men access to socio-economic resources & equal participation.” –UNDP
People are
born female or male but learn to be girls and boys, who grew into women &
men. This learned behavior determines our gender roles. Sex refers to those
characteristics which are biologically-determined. The word gender is used to
describe those characteristics of women & men, which are socially
constructed. Gender equality means equal treatment of women and men in laws,
policies and equal access to resources and services within families,
communities and society at large-an absence of discrimination on the bases of a
persons’ sex in opportunities and the allocation of resources or benefits or in
access to services.
Gender
equality can be categorized as:
-
Formal equality
-
Substantive equality
-
Protectionist equality
-
Corrective equality
Five
indicators of Gender Equality by World Economic Forum:
-
Economic opportunity
-
Economic participation
-
Political participation
-
Health & well being
-
Educational attainment
Sweden,
Norway, Iceland, Denmark & Finland are ranked accordingly on the basis of
gender equality.
Gender
Equality/Equity & Sustainable Rural Development
Sustainable
rural development is long-lasting development that fulfills the requirements of
present generation without intervening the future generations’ demands. There
will not be problem for future generation by the now-developed infrastructures
& natural exploitation.
World
Women’s Convention in Beijing includes women and environment within twelve
critical areas of concerns. This focuses on the access of women to environment
and natural resources. And concluded that by environmental exploitation, women
are more victimized than men.
Environment
exploitation impacts social life. And there will not be equal participation,
without women’s participation. There requires equal participation, without
their participation sustainability in development cannot be achieved. That’s
why gender and sustainable development can be sighted from gender discourses
point of view.
Rural
development is a process of integrating rural people for achieving one goal.
This empowers their knowledge & capacity. This is the process of
self-sustaining. The vicious circle of poverty stands as one obstacle for rural
development. And this impacts mostly women. They have to be dependent for their
own survival. So, there should be participation of women in each and every
program of development. This can only reduce the gender differences. There is
huge discrimination among rural people, men are free compared to women. Now
this has been global concern. For the solution to the problem UN has launched
many programs such as amendment of indication of 2008 January 5 for legal
development of global community. There they mentioned gender equality and
women’s empowerment in third point. Which has aim of achieving till 2015. Nepal
has also participated in this program and aimed to reduce women discrimination
in education from 2015. There has been drastic change in women’s status in
global context, but this still needs to be equal in participation in programs
& programs and consumption of developmental fruits. In the context of Nepal,
traditional rituals and customs serves for unequal treatment to women. There is
no equal participation of women in market sphere, they are likely to work in
home only, and they do non-economic functions. Demographically, 51.50% women
are there according to census of 2068. But there lacks equal participation in
public forum, such as constituent assembly, bureaucracy etc.
There are
not only dark sides because government provides positive discrimination for
their access in policy making level, prioritized girls’ education &
subsidies in public institutions.
As a whole,
the role of gender equality/equity for rural development can be presented as
below:
-
Wise utilization of means & resources
-
Green revolution in agriculture
-
To ease decision making process
-
Environment conservation
-
Education & health facility for women
-
Community participation & programs
-
Regular flow of information
-
Ensure Human Right
As a
conclusion, it can be concluded that there must be equal participation of women
in each and every sector for rural as well as global development. There
requires positive change in attitude towards women. This only promotes welfare.
Gender
Issues
Gender
issues are socially discussed subjects relating to gender. In other words,
gender issues are those discourses, which are generated by the discrimination
between men and women or girls and boys. It is the comparison between role of
male and females within social structure.
Mainly after
1970s, participation of women in development and benefit distribution to them
was prioritized. Now, it is established as inseparable subject matter in
development. World is now narrowed as Global Village and the gender related
issues are included in many plans and programs.
Gender
issues may vary from country to country. Some of the gender issues are:
a) Women
and Right to Property: Women too have equal right for ancestral property and
women should be allowed to enjoy their parental property after them. This has
prioritized in women’s independence through economic insights. When women will
grow economically independent, they can be free from most of the exploitation
they face.
b) Women
and Politics: Politics is policy making process. There we find less
participation of women. Even in developed nations, this statistics remain same
as others. World Women’s Convention in Beijing also insisted in participation
of women in policy making.
c) Women
and Violence: Any kind of physical or mental torcher or disturbance to women is
women violence. Prostitution, child marriage, black-mailing, polygamy are some
of them.
d) Body
Politics (zl// /fhlglt): This is
developed as a major branch of women and politics. This insists on women’s
right on their own body. They should have right to decide whether or not to use
their body. No politics should be done on the basis of physical disadvantages.
e) Other
Gender Issues: Women health, reproductive health, education are some of the
gender issues. Equal payment to men and women for same kind of work are
emerging issues.
These kinds
of gender issues should be concerned in developmental works. Their equal
participation results sustainability n development. If they left behind,
development in actual sense cannot be achieved. That’s why gender issues are
the main factors for holistic and long-lasting development.
Gender
Mainstreaming
Involving
women in the main wave or stream of development is gender mainstreaming.
Providing responsibility with benefit sharing is the process of gender
mainstreaming. The main and ultimate aim of gender mainstreaming is gender
equality in every dimension. Empowering and utilizing female power helps in
accelerating the pace of development.
In Nepal,
from the 6th plan, provision of capacity building and mobilizing in
productive work to women is forwarded. Likewise, 7th and 8th
national plan have insisted in equal participation of women in development with
gender mainstreaming. And 10th and 11th plans started
recording their participation in developmental works and increasing their participation
in decision making level.
Establishment
of women’s ministry, National Women’s Commission are some of the prioritized
works of these plans. For sustainable and benefiting development gender
equality cannot be ignored. Problems relating to gender issues should be
solved, which is one of the main concern of 21st century’s global
development.
Limitations
of Gender Issues in Nepal:
-
No right to women over paternal property
-
No participation in decision making level
-
Presence of gender discriminatory laws
-
Low literacy rate of women
-
No determination of gender sensitive areas/fields
-
Lack of plan implementation
-
Violence of human rights
-
Lack of access to women to productive works
-
Lack of management for discriminated women
Measuring
ways of Gender Issues:
-
Participation of women in every sectors
-
Public awareness and long-terms plans
-
Gender-friendly law & developmental works
-
Economic evaluation of women’s work
-
Right to paternal property
-
Organization building
-
Equality through positive discrimination
-
Representation from backward
-
Suitable plans and policies
-
Capacity building and empowerment
Education
and Rural Development
According to
UN (1997): “Education is fundamental to enhancing the quality of human life and
ensuring social & economic progress.”
World Bank
Report (1999): “Education is the key to creating, adopting and spreading knowledge,
but the gains in access to education have been unevenly distributed, with the
poor seldom getting their fair share.”
Froebel:
“Education is the process by which the child makes its internal qualities in
outside.”
Importance
of Education in Rural Development
Education-skillful
manpower-resources mobilization-creation of employment opportunities-increase
in income-increase in purchasing power-qualitative living standard-Rural
Development
-
Development of skilled manpower
-
End of traditional/conservative thoughts
-
Agricultural transformation
-
Proper mobilization of rural resources
-
Gender equality
-
People’s participation
-
Employment and entrepreneurship
-
Protection of local knowledge, skill and culture
-
Rural tourism
-
Use of alternative energy
-
Increase in productive efficiency
-
Consciousness on sanitation and healthy life
Problems
in Expansion of Education
-
Lack of infrastructures
-
Lack of skilled manpower/human resources
-
No availability of schools/institutions
-
Less attraction on teaching profession
-
Political interference
-
Top-down policy system
-
Lack of practical education
-
Lack of investment/poverty
-
Traditional method
State of
Education in Nepal
-
Previously informal religious education
-
‘Sanskrit’ education in Prithivi Narayan Shah’s
period
-
English primary school in Thapathali after Jung
B. Rana’s England visit in 1910 B.S.
-
Durbar school by Bir Shamsher
-
‘Madrasa school’ in 1996 B.S for Muslim
education
-
Sanskrit institution in 1955 B.S. in many places
-
Formation of SLC Board in 1990 B.S.
-
11 Secondary Schools until 2007 B.S.
-
Establishment of National Education Planning
Commission in 2010 B.S.
-
65.9% literate people according to 2068 census
(75.1%-Male & 57.4% Female)
-
Present status of education, time relevancy,
utilization etc…
Environment
& Rural Development
Environment is
a complex whole of living and non-living things with relation to each other,
which survives as a system and understood in a holistic sense.
 |
 |
After the
industrialization, impact of human civilization hugely exploited environment.
Economic development of western countries in 1960 promoted consumerism.
Following the trend of mass exploitation, concept of sustainable development
started.
The word
sustainable development was firstly used in Cocoyoc Declaration in 1972. Then
sustainability in development was linked with environment protection. And later
its scopes were enlarged.
Sustainable
development is development that meets the needs of present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Environment
and Development: Interrelation
Environment
and development are interdependent and most crucial to each other because,
without adequate environmental protection, development will be undermined and
without development, environmental protection will fail.
Accomplishing
the twin goals of improving human well-being and protecting out common
environment is primary challenge for all. Globally, the remedial measures in
decision making level started only from 1960s. Various series of discussion,
workshops, meeting, conference, summits have been attempted to overcome such
crucial situation of the world. Currently, an integrated approach of
environment and development is best put forwarded by the concept of sustainable
development, defined as development which improves people’s quality of life
within the carrying capacity of the earth’s life’s support system that can
solve the current environmental crisis. Rapidly growing population have led to
land, water and fuel-wood shortages in rural areas which create lack of
sanitation & clean water.
Environment
and sustainable rural development are very closely and strongly connected
concepts and situations. It can be shown in many ways as follow:
-
Environment has to provide all necessary
resources and conditions for the process of development. If it is not in a
proper state, development cannot proceed. If it is in proper state, development
will suffer too. Therefore, for developmental success, the environment has to
be in balanced condition.
-
Similarly, if the development process takes a wrong
direction, a short-term vision cannot be achieved. It makes unjustifiable
exploitation of the environmental components and elements, it will not only
deteriorate the environment but also naturally make the development narrow and
unsustainable.
Thus, it is
clear by that both the processes are closely connected with each other. Just as
improvement in one will lead to the progress of other, deterioration of one
will lead to deterioration of other. Therefore our efforts must be geared
towards ensuring the developmental efforts and environmental conservation. So,
we can attain the goal of creating environmentally sound living conditions for
ourselves and for the coming generations, and make sustainable development in
reality.
Environmental
Issues
The environment
of the global village was victimized due to the population explosion in
developing countries, agriculture and industrial revolution in 1960s. This
resulted as depletion of ozone layer, deforestation, desertification, acid
rain, global warming, extinction of bio-diversity etc. Some programs were
launched for solution but that seems insufficient. Here are some environmental
issues as follow:
-
Problem in firewood and fodder collection
-
Problem in time management
-
Loss of productive time
-
Decrease in herbal, fruits and crops product
-
Problem in water resources
-
Natural hazards/disasters
-
Acid rain Water
pollution
-
Desertification Deforestation
-
Global warming Land
degradation
-
Drought & unseasonal rain Soil
Erosion/Landslides
Global
Efforts for Environmental Protection
To control
the over exploitation of environment in the name of development,
industrialization and modernization, there has been many exercises done. Only
after 1970s, the concentration of leaders, environmentalists and scholars
diverted towards environmental protection due to the ecological imbalance.
Conference related to environment was launched in 1971 in Helsinki. UN
completed Stockholm conference in 1972 on ‘Human Ecology’ that formulated
‘United Nations Environmental Program’. And in 1983, UN commission for
development and environment was established in the heading of former Norwegian Prime
Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland. This commission submitted report on 1987 named
‘Our Common Future’, which focused in balance between environment and
development. In 1992 Rio Conference forwarded Agenda-21 with priority to
climate change, bio-diversity and forest. UN also focused on NGOs role in this
matter. International Convention in Cairo prioritized women, development,
environmental protection and population control in 1993. Likewise 1997’s Kyoto
conference focused on pollution control.
Efforts
for Environmental Protection in Nepal
-
Land use policy from sixth five years plan
(2037-2042)
-
Special priority to environment in each
development works from seventh plan (2042-2047), formation of Council for
Natural and Cultural Source in 1990 A.D. and Environment Protection Council in
2050 and Environmental Impact Assessment.
-
Ministry
of Population and Environment in 2052.
-
Development projects based on Agenda-21 in Dang,
Surkhet, and Kailali.
-
Environment Protection Act on 2053 and
Environment Conservation Regulation in 2054 was determined.
-
Formulation of terms and conditions for vehicle
in Nepal in 2056.
-
Environment and resource conservation policy,
land use policy, land reform and forest development program in eighth plan
(2049-2054)
-
Sustainable development and environmental
protection in 10th plan (2059-2064)
-
Participation of stakeholders, resource
management, sustainability in use 14 conditions for industrial effluents and
vehicle pollution management in 11th interim plan (2064-2067)
-
Human
Right article 3 on Interim Constitution of Nepal And in article 35, welfare use
of environmental resources with priority to local community
-
Many other acts and programs: plantation,
conservation, green belts on road, green revolution…
Health
and Rural Development
Health is
wealth. If health is fit and right then everything goes beneficial.
“Health is
the quality of life that enable the individual to live most and serve best.” –
J.F. Williams
“Good health
is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being not the more
absence of disease or infirmity.” –WHO
Three
Aspects of Good Health:
-
Social well-being
-
Physical well-being
-
Mental well-being
In a
conclusion, good health requires:
-
Fitness
-
Flexibility
-
Courage
-
Self-confidence
-
Self-control
-
Free from diseases
-
Comfortable
-
Good sleeping
-
Tension free
-
Positive mentality
Importance
of Health in Rural Development
-
Social development
-
Increase in production and productivity
-
Economic development
-
Increase in income
-
Poverty reduction
-
To reduce risk
-
To increase voice and power
As a whole; |
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State of
Health in Nepal
-
Planning in health facility development
-
Participation of private sector
-
1433 Health Posts in 28 districts by local
bodies
-
Women health volunteers
-
Reduction of Malaria from Terai
-
International aid on health
-
Life expectancy rate to 70 years as by WHO
-
Human Development Index (HDI) 0.504 in 2002
-
Infant mortality rate 50 out of 1,000 in 2011
-
Child mortality rate 280 out of 100,00 in 2011
-
Child malnutrition 38.8% in 2011
Health
Problems in Nepal
Challenges:
Infrastructure development, cultural diversity, traditionalism, geography,
gender discrimination, biasness in law, political interference, poverty…
Opportunities:
Health right in constitution, Local participation, decentralization,
privatization, local herbs…
Field Methods and Models of Inquiry
on Rural Development
Many
problems exists in society. For the solution of these problems, the importance
of statistics cannot be denied. Fact data are the soul of research. So, for the
collection of factual data, fieldwork study is important method.
In this
method researcher him/herself visits or involves in the field or study area,
this kind of participatory method of data collection is fieldwork study. Due to
the direct relation between researcher and respondents, this method has high
value in sociological research.
To find out
the actual data, information, this method was previously used in the field of
Anthropology. Later, this started to use in the field of sociology as well. In
the context of rural social research, direct information collection cannot be
ignored, fieldwork study helps to gain local knowledge without any change in
information. Field work is the laboratory of any social science research. To
know the local culture, skills, problems, traditions, means and resources,
direct observation, questioning, probing and analysis of researcher plays vital
role, and field work study helps to do so. It believes without internalization
of local behavior, traditions, diversity and integrity no study can be done
scientifically. That’s why, researcher collects facts, data and information by
observing the existing trends. This method was started from early 19th
century.
“Fieldwork
is a study of people & their culture in their natural situation.” –Godde
& Hatt
“Fieldwork
is the investigation of real life situation through observation & informal
or unstructured interviewing.” – Collins Dictionary of Sociology
This is
primary data collection method. Researcher visits the targeted field/place and
analyses the social, cultural, educational, psychological behavior of local
people in their natural settings. This validates the findings of research &
ease to generalize the findings.
Characteristics
of Field Work:
-
Study of real life situation
-
Applies scientific method
-
Study of certain field/area
-
Useful to hypothesis formation & testing
-
Collection of actual facts/data
-
Long-term living in the field
-
Holistic approach
Preparation
of Field Work:
Field work
study takes long time, that’s why preparation requires for reducing problems in
the field. This can be presented as follow:
a) Intellectual
Preparation
a. Theoretical
preparation
b. Study
of research design
c. Study
of literature review
d. Knowledge
on targeted field study aspects
e. Consultation
with related scholars
f.
Trainings to assistants
b) Psychological
Preparation
a. Building
self-confidence
b. Capacity
to adoption on local environment
c. Determination
to internalize local culture and trends
d. Development
of courage & patience
e. Development
of fair treatment behavior
c) Methodological
Preparation
a. Creation
of research design
b. Selection
of study method
c. Sample
selection
d. Fixation
of study area/field
d) Physical
Preparation
a. Management
of food, shelter, clothes, medicines and camera
b. Management
of stationery materials
c. Other
physical preparation according to climate/season
d. Preparation
for assistants
Field
Work Methods
a) Participation
in Field Work
The
importance of participation of researcher in local people’s activities in
research process validates findings. Here participation applies for both side
researcher and respondents/informants. Researcher needs to be a part of
peoples’ activities and people should be participated in researchers’
activities/programs.
Due to the
failure of Top-down approach in 1960s and Modernization increased gap between
rich and poor, bottom-up approach took place. In 1970s fieldwork study emerged
as suitable method to study real nature of rural society. Participation of both
sides is the major component of this method. That helped to collect qualitative
and quantitative data in real scenario. This method takes people as experts for
their lifestyle, and the researcher as outsider or facilitator. Participation
of backward, marginalized, deprived, Dalit is prioritized from equity point of
view.
It is one of
the valid and scientific study in social science research because of data
collection through participation and easy generalization.
b) Field-Survey
Method
This method
applies many tools and techniques such as questionnaire, interview and
observation for the collection of qualitative data mostly. Survey is made up of
two French words ‘Sor’ & ‘Veeier’ which means to see from over. The literal
meaning of survey is to take a look over something from a high place. In this
process, informants were critically analyzed because to verify certain moment,
situation and phenomena.
This is an
authorized observation of the phenomena in natural state for the collection of
scientific & actual data. After the conformation of subject matter and
field for research, researcher gets ready for instruments to know the scenario
of the concerned area. First of all knowing what kinds of tools and techniques
could be used in the study area, is called pre-survey. This tests the
possibility for whole survey. Selection of correct tools and techniques
including capable human resource plays vital role in validity of findings. So,
pre-survey is necessary in this method.
Managing
language translator, if needed, and qualitative and quantitative fixation of
everything makes the whole survey easier. In case of rural area, it covers wide
area and collects scientific data, this contributes for the solution of rural
problems. This is one of the major method to study rural society and its
nature.
Social
Immersion and Rapport Building
Data is
anything that helps to researcher that can be taken out from
informants/respondents. So, the nature of data and its validity firstly depends
on them. That’s why rapport building and social immersion building plays vital role
in whole research process. Social immersion or rapport building means extending
or establishing mutual, interdependent relation with the people. Researcher
should be a fair member of their group, trusting them & making them to
trust upon outsider is rapport building. This increases the chance of getting
eternal information of the study area. Adopting their culture, helping them in
needs, sharing suitable opinions makes the relation stronger. Having even
informal relation with them increases the chance of getting core data. And the
valid, scientific data is the soul of whole research.
Qualities
of a Researcher with respect to Rapport Building:
-
Should be helpful & realistic
-
Should be open and liberal
-
Should have communication skill
-
Should present the objectives of study
-
Should have local knowledge
-
Should be neutral
-
Should be creative and sensitive
-
Should participate in local culture, religion
and phenomena
Importance
of Rapport Building
-
Mutual relation with all members
-
To know local needs
-
To reduce confusion & suspicion
-
To analyze every aspects clearly
-
For help in need
-
To make research valid, credible and
objective-oriented
-
Qualitative and quantitative data collection
Rapid
Rural Appraisal & Participatory Rural Appraisal (RRA/PRA)
After the
problem identification social research requires data. For this purpose primary
data collection is also used. For the collection of primary data RRA/PRA is
mostly used methods. PRA is the changing method of RRA.
Rapid Rural
Appraisal:
Large scale
investment, promotion of technology and information were considered keys to
economic development of developing countries during 1950s and 60s. Lack of
capital investment and technology are taken as the factor for underdevelopment.
Then in 1970s green revolution started to provide economic and technical
assistance by developed to underdeveloped countries. That failed. In this
course development activities & scholars knew about the indispensable
relation between social, cultural, economic and environmental aspects in rural
society. After this they started holistic & multi-dimensional development
process.
This thought
emerged Integrated Development Approach during 1970s. This focused on local
means and resources mobilization for community development, which contributed
for the emergence of RRA. In this method, research groups are fixed in center
and they visit field area. There, they form different kinds of focus groups.
They select key informants and collect required data and information from them.
And conclude the gained data/information.
RRA focuses
on the implementation of local plan by outsider on the basis of gained
skill/knowledge. Working system was prioritized than public participation.
Outsider play active and vital role in RRA. Previously RRA is considered as
only information gaining process in which local people don’t play active role
in implementation, they are as consumer. But now this concept has changed,
their participation in all phase is important. Due to the lack of people’s
participation in development activities almost every plan couldn’t achieve
pre-determined objectives & they were unsustainable. This formerly emerged
as rapid method for knowing local knowledge, skill and capacity. To promote the
relation between development activities & local people PRA was developed,
that was ignored in RRA. Development for people not by people. Top-bottom
approach.
Participatory
Rural Appraisal
One of the
famous proponent of this approach is Robert Chamber. This focused in empowering
local people by sharing local expertise. People’s participation is compulsory
in this approach. This method is managed method rather than new approach of
development. This reduced the flaws that appeared in RRA. PRA emerged in the
learning process of RRA. Bottom-up approach.
This
approach regards outsider as facilitator rather than interventionist. They need
to participate in program to identify local problems. Local people are the
experts of the program that seeks implementation in their area. Participation
of local people in each & every step of research & plan implementation
is indispensable in this approach. PRA is identified in various names by the
experts such as Rapid Assessment Procedure (RAP) Participatory Learning Method
(PLM) etc. Development by people for people.
Advantages
of PRA:
-
Community mobilization
-
Effective for problem analysis
-
Primacy of visual materials/methods
-
Systematized rural participation
-
Community empowerment
-
Fast and inexpensive
-
Follow-up by local leader
-
Helpful for Integrated development
-
Priority to local demands
Application
of PRA:
-
To mobilize local resources
-
For community mobilization
-
Solution to local problems
-
Empowerment
-
Income generating activities
Procedures
of PRA:
-
Site selection
-
Preliminary visits
-
Data collection
-
Data synthesis & analysis
-
Ranking of problems
-
Ranking of opportunities
-
Adopting village resource management plan (VMP)
-
Implementation
Considering
factors while conducting the PRA:
-
Participation of all
-
Speak less, listen more
-
Open questions (close if needed)
-
Understandable relevant questions
-
One by one discussion (noting and listing of
information)
-
No repetition, clear questioning at first
-
Priority to women & backward
-
Respect to all; physically & mentally
Methods
of PRA
-
Social map & resource map
-
Seasonal calendar
-
Wealth ranking
-
Priority determination
-
Mobility map
-
Focus group discussion (FGD)
-
Pie-chart
Observation
method
One of the
major tools for gaining scientific data in research is observation. It helps to
know cause & effect relation of social problems.
P.V. Young:
“Observation may be defined as systematic viewing compelled with consideration
of seen phenomena.”
Concise
Oxford Dictionary: “Accurate watching, nothing of phenomena as they occur in
nature I with regard to cause and effect and mutual relationship.”
Joahn
Galtung: “Observation is recording of all form of sense perception.”
C.A. Moser:
“In the strict sense observation implies the use of the eyes rather than of the
ears and voices.”
In a
conclusion, observation is direct and primary insight into the cause and effect
relationship between social phenomena.
Characteristics
of Observation:
-
Eye affair
-
Direct method to study
-
Cause and effect relationship
-
Intensive study
-
Collection of primary data
Participant
Observation
One of the
data collection method typically applied in the qualitative research paradigm.
It is a widely used methodology in many disciplines, particularly cultural
anthropology. In this method researcher him/herself involves in the field area
and analyses the phenomena. It has high validity and credibility.
Preparation
of Field Report
Whole
research process will be useless without field report preparation or
presentation. Managed, short, simple, suitable and meaningful conclusive
analysis of facts and data is field report. The purpose of field report is to
deliver contextual, scientific reasoning and solution to the social problem.
There requires systematic methods and procedures. And the suitability of report
also depends on the writer and his internal understandings.
Report
Writing Format
Standard Model
that is used by UNs personnel;
A) Primary
Part
1. Title
2. Acknowledgement
3. Table
of content
4. Abstract
(Summary)
B) Main
Body
1. Introduction
2. Objective
3. Literature
Review (Critiques on contextual past studies)
4. Method/Methodology/Procedures
5. Data
Presentation/Result
6. Conclusion
7. Recommendations
C) Last
Part
1. References/Bibliography
2. Appendices
(Maps, charts, terminologies)
3. Numbering
& Structure
4. Objectives
of report writing
How to
Write a Good Report?
-
Simple, clear language writing
-
No use of double-meaning words/phrases
-
Certainty on data ranking
-
Logical analysis and presentation of content
-
Organized topics and bulleting
-
Specific, short and conclusive
-
Readers’ oriented
-
Use of relevant graphs, charts and photos
Application of Sociological Knowledge
·
Population and Health
·
Forestry and Bio-diversity Conservation
·
Education and Employment
·
Girls Trafficking
·
Child Labor
·
Gender Equality
·
Ethnicity, Ethnic Diversity and National
Integration
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