Research Methods in Sociology and Anthropology

Introduction

·         Social Research is:

1)      Observation or fact based data

2)      Objectivity (Value free)

3)      Systematic Procedure

Redman and Mory: “Systematized effort to gain new knowledge, we call research.”

C.A. Moser: “Systematized investigation to gain new knowledge about social phenomena and problem, we call social research.”

·         Utilization Objectives of Social Research:

(Knowledge for the sake of betterment of human beings.)

(Knowledge for the sake of knowledge.)

1)      To solve the social evils and problems based on information received from social research.

2)      To provide information for the planning social reconstruction and development.

3)      To get information for the prediction of social events.

·         Importance of Social Research:

1)      To provide realistic knowledge about social events.

2)      Helpful in trend analysis of social events.

3)       Helpful to find out the feasibility and effectiveness of the program.

4)      Helpful to design effective plan.

·         Conceptà Representation of a set of facts or events.

·         Features of Concept:

1)      Expressed in a word of phrase.

2)      Symbolic that consists specific meaning/represents group of facts.

3)      Developed from shared experiences.

4)      Different meaning in different frame of reference or context.

5)      Changeable in terms of time.

·         Types of Concept:

1)      Concrete and Abstract

2)      Constant and Variable

·         Variables:

Variable is any entity that can take on different values/carries more than two values that changes according to different factors.

·         Types of Variables:

1)      Independent and dependent variables

“If I were taller, I would weigh more.” In this statement taller is independent variable and weigh is dependent. Because weigh of a person depends on tallness but tallness doesn’t on weigh.

2)      Intervening variables

Sates between dependent and Independent variables.

3)      Antecedent variable

Presumed to operate before independent and dependent variables.

·         Measurement :

The process of assigning value to record.

H. Russell Bernard: “Measurement is deciding which value to record.”

Measurement is assignment of mathematical symbols to objects and events according to prescribed rules which is called scale.

·         Scales of Measurement (Level):

Level (Scale)                            Properties

Nominalà Indicates difference only.

Ordinalà Indicates difference and direction of difference.

Intervalà Indicates difference, direction of difference and amount of difference.

Ratioà Indicates difference, direction of difference and amount of difference, ‘0’ is valid    and used in meaningful purpose.

Ethnic Group (Nominal)	Caste (Ordinal)	Temperature (Interval)	Income (Ratio)
Tamang	Brahmin	10	10
Gurung	Chhetri	20	20
Rai	Vaishya	30	30
Limbu	Shudra	40	40

Note: Value can be indicated by minus (-) in Interval.

·         Evidence: Reliability and Validity

Evidence is anything that is presented in support of an assertion. Scientific evidence consists of experimental results that serves to support, refuse, or modify a scientific hypothesis of theory, when collected and interpreted in accordance with the scientific method.

H. Russell Bernard: “Reliability refers to whether or not you get the same answer by using and instrument to measure something more than once.”

·         Aspects of Reliability:

a)      Stability: Concerned with securing consistent results with repeated measurements of the same subject with the same instruments. (Test-Retest concept.)

b)      Equivalence: Use of parallel or equivalent scales.

·         Test of Reliability:

1)      Test-retest Method

2)      Parallel form Method

3)       Split-half Method

Type	Coefficient	What is measured	Methods
Test-Retest	Stability	Reliability of a test or instrument inferred from examinee scores; same test in administered twice to same subjects over an interval of less than six months.	Correlation
Parallel form	Equivalence	Degree to which alternative forms of the same measure produce same results; administered simultaneously or with a delay.	Correlation
Split-half	Consistency	Degree to which instrument items are homogenous and reflect the same underlying constructs.	Correlation

·         Research/Fact finding methods in Social Research:

1)      Induction: Particular to general (Private case to Public case)

2)      Deduction: General to Particular (Public case to Private case)

·         Empiricism:

G.C. Pandey: “Any system of gathering information which rejects apriori knowledge, rest solely on experience and induction is known as empiricism.”

à Applies induction method.

·         Hypothesis:

B.N. Ghosh: “A hypothesis is a tentative generalization, the validity of which remains to be tested.”

·         Types of Hypothesis:

1)      According to Bernard Philips:

a)      Descriptive

b)      Relational

c)      Causal

2)      On the basis of test of activity:

a)      Research

b)      Null

·         Sources of Hypothesis:

1)      Personal experiences

2)      Theories/Laws

3)      Analogy (Comparison)

4)      General Culture

5)      Research reports

6)      Experts’ opinions

·         Components of Social Research/Natural Science:

1)      Concept

2)      Theory

3)      Research

è Theory provides general statement for research.

è Theory provides guidelines for research.

·         Relationship Between Research and Theory:

Francis Abraham: “Theory suggests potential problems for empirical inquiry, empirical findings are then incorporated into the theoretical system, the theory itself stands validated, revised or rejected according to the findings uncovered by research and theory establishes a meaningful relationships between discrete facts and systems new hypothesis for further inquiry.”

è Theory suggests potential problems and fruitful hypothesis.

è Theory delimits the scope of inquiry by prioritizing significant facts.

è Theory provides overall guidelines for research.

è Research helps for theory building.

è Research tests and validates existing theories.

è Research enhances the explanatory power of theory.

·         Ethical Considerations in Social Science Research:

1)      Respect for the dignity of the subjects. (Data consent should be spontaneous.)

2)      Impact of research on society.

3)      Anonymity: Subjects identity should not be disclosed anyway. You may hide even the name of field.

4)      Confidentiality

5)      Avoid plagiarism and misinterpretation.

6)      Responsibility and accountability to the funding agency and agency that gives permission for research.

7)      Researcher’s behavior in the study area.

Research Design

C.R. Kothari: “In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which, research is conducted. It constituents the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.”

·         Components of Research Design:

According to C.R. Kothari

1)      What the study is about?

2)      Why the study is being made?

3)      Where the study will be held?

4)      What type of data require?

5)      Where the required data can be found?

6)      What period of time will the study include?

7)      What will be the sample design?

8)      What techniques of data collection will be applied?

9)      How the data will be analyzed?

10)  Hoe the data will be prepared?

·         Importance of Research Design:

1)      It facilitates the smooth operation to entire research.

2)      It helps to organize research activities tactfully.

3)      Helpful to make research more reliable.

·         Types of Research Design:

1)      On the basis of rigidity/flexibility:

a)      Exploratory Research

b)      Descriptive Research

c)      Experimental Research

2)      On the basis of time:

a)      Cross-sectional Research

b)      Longitudinal Research

3)      On the basis of Research approach:

a)      Qualitative Research

b)      Quantitative Research

·         Exploratory Research Design method is considered most flexible. This is macro level research design. The main objective of such design is to formulate a problem for more precise investigation or to develop the working hypothesis.

·         Strengths of Exploratory Research:

è Helpful to get insight on the new issue.

è Flexible nature is helpful for intensive study.

è Helpful to generate hypothesis.

·         Weaknesses of Exploratory Research:

è Vague (To some extent)

è Not suitable for hypothesis testing.

·         Features of Exploratory Research:

1)      Overall design--------------------- Flexible

2)      Sampling design------------------ Non-probability

3)      Data Collection design---------- Unstructured

4)      Data analysis design------------- No pre-planned for analysis

5)      Operational design--------------- No fixed decisions about operational procedures.

·         Descriptive Research Design is a fact finding operation for adequate information which generally conducted to assess the behaviors, characteristics, opinions of population and to describe the situation and events occurring at present.

·         Objectives of Descriptive Research:

1)      Considered with describing the characteristics of particular individuals or of a group or situation.

2)      Overall design ‘rigid’

·         Features of Descriptive Research:

1)      Sampling design---------------------- Probability

2)      Data collection Instruments------- Structured

3)      Analysis design------------------------ Preplanned

4)      Operational design------------------- Advanced decision about operational procedures

·         Strengths of Descriptive Research:

è Helpful to trace out the characteristics of concerned individuals, group, situations, problems etc.

è Pre-planned operational procedures ensures comfort in research process.

è Possibility of control in biasness.

·         Limitations of Descriptive Research:

è Rigidity may adversely affect to focus on all aspects of the issue.

è Not suitable to study all types of issues.

·         Experimental Research Design:

 (Hypothesis testing research design)

Experimental Research Design is highly rigid.  It focuses on testing of previously generated hypothesis being based on causal-effect relationship. This requires at least two groups to make comparison i.e. Case group and Control group.

·         Objective of Experimental Research Design:

 Primary goal of this research design is to estimate a specific reaction of specific events. It helps to test the hypothesis of causal relationship between events.

·         Features of Experimental Research Design

‘HIGHLY RIGID’

1)      Operational procedure ------------------------ Pre-fixed

2)      Data collection instrument------------------- Structured

3)      Data analyses design--------------------------- Pre-fixed

·         Points to Separate Experimental Research from other Researches:

1)      You need at least two group: case and control group.

2)      Random assignment of units in both groups.

3)      Pre-test

4)      Intervention

5)      Post-test

Particular	Case Group	Control Group	Remark
Pre-test	Yes	Yes	Raw case
Intervention	Yes	No	Changing Factor (Process)
Post-test	Yes	Yes	Result

Note: The above mentioned result is based on the research that is done in the group of people that is divided into 50-50 of total 100. Case group is provided amphetamine (old hood reducing medicine) and other, control group is not provided. The changing factor or process mean the same process of giving medicine.

·         Types of Experimental Research Design:

1)      True experimental research design is used in natural science, rigid, all the above mentioned points of directions are applied.

2)      Semi-experimental research design is used in social sciences till date. Any of above mentioned process or questionnaire is compromised.

·         Strengths of Experimental Research Design:

è Real test of hypothesis is possible.

è Cause and effect relationship can be well established.

è More reliable finding can be achieved.

·         Limitations of Experimental Research Design:

è Possibility of reactivity (due to pre-test)

è Time consuming and expensive.

è Real control and random assignment of units is difficult in social events.

è Ethical and practical problem.

·         Cross-sectional Research Design:

 International Encyclopedia of Sociology: “A cross-sectional study is a type of study in which different cohorts are compared at the same point of time. Cohorts may be different age group, different ethnic group, or even different countries.”

 T.L. Baker: “In cross-sectional study, whatever is being studied is being observed at a single point of time.”

·         Major Features of Cross-Sectional Research Design:

1)      Study is related to a single point of time.

2)      Involvement of different cohorts.

3)      Different cohorts are assumed to be compared.

·         Strengths of Cross-sectional Research Design:

è No need to wait long period of time for finding.

è Cost effective

è Helpful to assess the situations of particular events in reference to different cohorts.

·         Limitations of Cross-Sectional Research Design:

è Not so useful to study the change process.

è To some context findings may not be as reliable as longitudinal research design.

·         Longitudinal Research Design:

David Dooley: “Longitudinal design collects data at more than one time.”

·         Major Features of Longitudinal Research Design:

1)      Study of at least two units in different point of time.

2)      Involvement of same or similar units throughout the study.

3)      Comparison is made in different points of time.

·         Types of Longitudinal Research Design:

1)      Trend Study: The same number and similar types of units from the same population are studied over times.

2)      Panel Study: Same respondents are studied at more than one times.

·         Strengths of Longitudinal Research Design:

è Helpful to study the rate and the trend of change.

è More reliable and clean finding can be achieved.

è Helpful to make prediction.

·         Weaknesses of Longitudinal Research Design:

è It takes long time to carry out.

è Not applicable to study all types of issues.

è The selected units under study may not be available in successive years.

·         Qualitative Research Design:

Merrian: “Qualitative researchers are interested in understanding the meaning, people have constructed how people make sense of their world and the experiences they have in the world.”

Denzin and Lincoln: “Qualitative research involves an interpretation and naturalistic approach to the world, this means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings attempting to make sense of or to interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.”

·         Main Features of Qualitative Research Design:

1)      More unstructured research instruments.

2)      Qualitative data (word based)

3)      Limited generalization.

4)      Subjectivity (value based meaning/Interpretive)

5)      Knowledgeable respondents

6)      Mostly inductive reasoning

7)      Flexible

·         Strengths of Qualitative Research Design:

è Fact information

è Data presented in words, comparing with other values.

è Interprets the meaning of social phenomena or events.

·         Weaknesses of Qualitative Research:

è Presents an average information.

è Interpreting meaning of every events may bias.

è Lengthy comparing to Quantitative research design.

·         Quantitative Research Design:

Burns and Grove: “Quantitative research is a formal, objective and systematic process in which numerical data are used to obtain information about the world.”

·         Main Features of Quantitative Research Design:

1)      More structured research instruments.

2)      Numerical data/Quantitative data.

3)      Objectivity/Positivistic

4)      Representative respondents

5)      Deductive reasoning

6)      Rigid compared to Qualitative

·         Strengths of Quantitative Research Design:

è Fact information about the study/Acute information.

è Doesn’t interprets meaning of social events.

è Mainly numerical data oriented.

·         Weaknesses of Quantitative Research Design:

è Less suitable for uneducated respondents.

è Lacks comparison in degree or direction of difference.

è Positivistic meaning of social events. ! (Can be strength too.)

Combination of both research design is considered applicable and suitable for most research projects. This is sometimes indicated as combine Qualitative and Quantitative study. Qualitative Research design is solely applicable in Cultural Anthropology and Quantitative is forwarded in Sociology.

Sampling

·         Sampling Method Terminologies:

1)      Universe: Totality of units, aggregation of units, units of field study & scope.

2)      Sampling Frame: Listing of units (may or may not be name or address of subject matter)

3)      Sampling Design: Pre-plan for sampling, frame-work

4)      Sample: Representative units

5)      Sample size: Group of representative based on nature of units

6)      Sampling elements/unit: Level of respondents; individual, household, V.D.C. etc.

7)      Sampling technique: Technique or method to point out or select respondents for inquiry.

**** If the sampling frame of a universe can be exposed/selected that is finite sampling and not included is called infinite. ****

·         Sampling:

Sampling may be defined as the selection of some part of an aggregate or totality on the basis of which a judgment or inference about the aggregate or totality is made.

·         Rationale of Sampling design (Necessity):

è It saves time and money.

è It enables accurate measurement.

è Sampling remains the only way when universe is infinite.

è Sampling remains the only choice when a test involves the destruction of the item under study.

·         Probability Sampling Design:

è Each item has an equal and independent chance of selection like; lottery...

·         Rationale of Probability Sampling Design:

è Chance of less sample error.

è Less possibility of biasness.

·         Limitations of Probability Sampling Design:

è Important units may not be selected.

è Universe needs to be finite.

è May be more expensive & time consuming.

·         Types of Probability Sampling

1)      Simple random sampling à not classified.

2)      Systematic random sampling

3)      Stratified random sampling

4)      Multi-stage random sampling

·         Simple Random Sampling

-          Procedure:

1)      Identify the total number of units in the universe

2)      Decide the sample size.

3)      Select sample units using slips, cards, random table numbers, computer programs, fish balls etc…

NOTE: It is comparatively easier to conduct than other types of probability sampling design.

            Heterogeneous study is harder, may not represent in sample.

·         Systematic Random Sampling:

-          Procedure:

1)      Prepare the list of unit in the universe.

2)      Decide the sample size. (All the diversities must reflect in sample size.)

3)      Decide the interval. à (To decide interval the Total units in universe is divided by Sample size.)

4)      Select the unit from the first interval.

5)      Go on selecting the unit from the unit from each subsequent interval unless you get the required sample size.

NOTE: More representative than simple random sampling.

            Time and cost consuming than simple random sampling.

            Representation may hinder in larger heterogeneity.

·         Stratified Random Sampling:

Classification of units of universe based on certain criteria and the objectives of the study.

-          Procedure:

1)      Identify the sampling units in the universe.

2)      Decide up on the different strata.

3)      Place each unit into the appropriate stratum.

4)      Decide the total sample size.

5)      Determine the number of units or the proportion of each stratum to be selected.

Three methods to determine the number of units i) Proportionate ii) Disproportionate iii) Weighted (Priority to Minority.).

6)      Select required number of units from each stratum.

·         Strength:

è More applicable in heterogeneous universe.

·         Limitation:

è Requires more specific study to stratify the units into strata and number of stratum.

·         Multi-Stage Random Sampling:

Multi-stage random sampling is that kind of sampling that requires multiple sampling for the selection of ultimate sample from previously determined universe.

-          Procedure:

1)      Select the universe.

2)      Determine representative sample size.

3)      Again select conclusive sample from previous sample.

4)      Finally select ultimate sample and then conclude.

·         Strengths:

è Useful for research in hurry.

è Time convenient and comparably cheap.

·         Weaknesses:

è Probability of sample error is more.

è Less effective in heterogeneous universe.

·         Non-Probability Sampling:

Units are selected deliberately.

·         Usefulness:

è Important units for the study can be selected.

è Useful in case of infinite universe too.

è Flexible nature of such sampling allows in-depth study of the issue.

è Useful if units are scattered in large/big area.

è It takes less time and resources.

·         Limitations:

è Risk of biasness.

è Difficult to estimate sample error.

·         Types of Non-Probability Sampling:

1)      Purposive (Judgmental) à Researcher decides respondents within certain criteria. Selection of purpose.

2)      Quota à Stratify the universe and provision of quota.

3)      Accidental à On the spot research; walking, travelling, working etc.

4)      Convenience à Respondents selection by researcher, considered less effective, hard to reason for choosing respondents.

5)      Snow ball à Expand the universe units until researcher gets fixed sample size. As an example: If a researcher needs to study about prostitutes of certain area, suppose; Chabahil, first of all s/he have to find at least one unit that can provide useful information, then after s/he have to enhance the same circle, may be one to two, two to four, four to six and likewise until s/he gets required sample size. Mostly applies in the case that respondents cannot or may not want to publicize themselves.

6)      Self-selected à Respondents present themselves in Sample size and respond to researcher; like public poll, online free voting… etc.

Research Tools & Techniques

·         A Survey must have:

1)      Identical Questions with same numberings.

2)      Representative respondents.

Collins: “Social survey is a comprehensive collection of data and information about people living in a specific area or administrative unit.”

T.L. Baker: “Survey research is a method of data collection in which a defined group of individuals are asked to answer a number of identical questions.”

·         Basic Features:

è Identical questions are presented

è Concerned with describing, recording, analyzing, and interpreting conditions that either exist or existed. No manipulation (intervention) of the events.

è Mainly descriptive in nature.

è Rigid

è Based on concepts of representation in case of study units to be covered.

·         Types of Social Survey:

1)      Census Survey and Sample Survey

2)      Pilot Survey and Final Survey

Primary Survey to check and test survey method for whole process is Pilot Survey.

Conclusion oriented survey is Final Survey.

3)      Self-Administrated Survey, Interview Survey and Telephone Survey

Written question and answer without direct contact between researcher and respondents is self-administrated survey.

4)      Computer-assisted telephone Survey and Internet Survey

·         Significances of Survey:

è Useful to describe characteristics.

è Evidences collected through this method can be used to argue for or against the existing theories.

è Helpful to find out relationship between events.

è Can be conducted even in scattered and remote geographical areas applying some specific survey method.

è Standardized questions make the measurement precise, uniform and objective.

·         Forms of Data:

a)      Written form

b)      Verbal form

c)      Physical Manifestation

d)      Residue – Historical Evidences of fossils researches.

·         Techniques of Data collection:

a)      Questionnaire

b)      Interview

c)      Observation

Interview is that kind of data collection method that collects data in verbal forms for evidences.

Denzin: “Interview is a face to face conversational exchange where one person elicits information from another person.”

·         Basic features of Interview:

a)      Involvement of two parties.

b)      Purposeful conservation.

c)      Other sense organs can also be used.

·         Types of Interview:

1)      On the basis of Structure:

i)                    Structured

ii)                  Unstructured

2)      On the basis of Duration:

i)                    Long

ii)                  Short

3)      On the basis of formality (Fixation of time and place):

i)                    Formal

ii)                  Informal

4)      On the basis of number of informants:

i)                    Individual

ii)                  Group

·         Strengths of Interview:

è Detail and intensive information can be collected.

(Future plan, attitude, probing, sensitive data, past event etc.)

è Flexible (In case of informal and unstructured)

è Meaningful information can be obtained

è High response rate

è Less reactivity

·         Weakness of Interview:

è Expensive and time consuming

è Difficult to conduct in widely scattered area.

è More skillful manpower requires

è Lack of uniformity (especially in informal and unstructured)

·         Questionnaire:

Goode and Hatt: "In general, the word questionnaire refers to a device of securing answers to questions by using a form which the respondents fill in himself."

·         Basic Features of Questionnaire:

è Systematic list of questions

è Self-administrated technique

è Data are collected in written form

·         Types of Questionnaire:

1)      On the basis of Structure - Capt:

i)                    Structured - Closed ended (Objective)

ii)                  Unstructured - Open ended (Subjective)

2)      On the basis of Information (data type) - Ludberg:

i)                    Questionnaire of Facts

ii)                  Questionnaire of opinion or attitude

3)      On the basis of Administration (Operation) process:

i)                    Mailed Questionnaire

ii)                  Administrated Questionnaire (drop & collect) through agent

·         Strengths of Questionnaire:

è Less expensive and time consuming

è Do not need data skillful data collector

è Useful in widely scattered population

è Anonymity

è Informants get sufficient time to response

è Uniformity

·         Limitations of Questionnaire:

è Risk of defective sample

è No probing

è Less flexible

è Lack of uniformity in information

è Problem of non-response and partial response

è Difficulty in construction of uniform question that suit for all respondents

è No observation

·         Observation:

Observation is used to collect data in the form of physical manifestation.

C.A. Moser: “Observation implies the use of the eyes rather than that of the ears and the voice.”

·         Types of Observation:

a)      On the basis of Structure:

i)                    Structured

ii)                  Unstructured

b)      On the basis of Participation:

i)                    Participant - Observer include himself/herself in the studying universe.

ii)                  Non-participant

iii)                Semi participant

c)      On the basis of control:

i)                    Controlled - Manipulation of the event/ Researcher modifies situation as per requirement.

ii)                  Uncontrolled - Intervention free. Natural setting.

·         Strengths of Observation Method:

è Less possibility of subjective biasness

è Independent of respondents' willingness to respond

è Information is related to what is currently happening

è Suitable to deal with subjects which are not capable to provide information in written/verbal forms

è Cross-checking opportunity

è Intensive study possible

è Meaningful information

·         Limitations of Observation:

è Expensive and time consuming

è Information provided by this technique is very limited; thoughts may not be expressed…

è Some cases are rarely accessible to direct observation; like sexual activity…

·         Case Study:

P.V. Young: “Case study is a method of exploring and analyzing the life of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group or even entire community.”

·         Major Features:

è Integrated or holistic study of social units

è Intensive study (Focus on What & How much)

è Focus on historical aspects of the unit

è Mainly qualitative in nature

·         Key Assumptions:

è Unit need to be studied from holistic approach

è As the nature of social event is complex, it needs intensive study

è Historical approach should be applied

è Fundamental unity is found in human behavior

·         Requirements of Case Study:

è Selection of unit (Individual, Institution, group…)

è Number of unit

è Aspects of case (Social, Economic, Political…)

·         Strengths of Case Study:

è Intensive & holistic study is possible

è More effective to study qualitative events

è Helpful to know change pattern

è Flexible

è Triangulation method (Sources & methods may be various of same case study)

·         Limitations of Case Study:

è More objective and less scientific (value-free)

è Possibility of false generalization (case may not be representative)

è Flexibility can be source of biasness

è Not appropriate for extensive study; such as population census…

·         Genealogical Method:

W.H.R. Rivers developed this study method in 20^th century especially for illiterate, pre-industrial society.

The study or investigation of ancestor & family history.

“The study of family history, including the study of who the ancestors of a particular persons were.” –Oxford Dictionary

·         Key Tips for Successful operation of Genealogical Method:

è Selection of old & mature person respondents/informants.

è Respondents should be reliable.

è Adequate cross-question

è Ensure secrecy

è Either learn the language of the group to be studied or take the help of assistant who knows the language.

è Better if the researcher has the knowledge of kinship system of the group.

è Use the symbols developed in the field of genealogical method.

·         Symbols for Genealogical Diagram:

a)      d.y. – died in young age

b)      d.Unm – died in unmarried stage

c)            –  male                – Female           – Sex Unknown

d)                              – died in child age (son, daughter, unknown)

e)                 –  Sibling relationship

f)                  –  Twin siblings

g)                 –  Marital relationship

h)                –  Illegal marital relationship

·         Significance/Usefulness of Genealogical Method:

è To find out bold relation

è To find out property inheritance

è To find out the succession of chieftains

è To find out trend of socio-cultural change

è To find out the spread of cultural group

è To know the kinship system

·         Limitations of Genealogical Method:

è Limited implication

è Possibility of lack of objectivity in information

è Difficulty in verification of reliability & validity of information

                                                  Fig: Genealogical diagram of five generation

·         Content Analysis:

Content analysis is the quantitative analysis of the qualitative documents.

Willey introduced in 1926 & LA swell provide scientific way in 1930.

P.V. Young: “content analysis is a research technique for the systematic, objective & quantitative description of the content of research data procured through interviews, questionnaires, schedules & other linguistic expressions written or oral.”

·         Procedures:

è Selection of the topic & the content

è Sample selection

è Specify unit of analysis (word, theme, character, space/time etc.)

è Calculation of occurrence of unit of analysis or recording units. There are mainly four ways of calculation of units:

a.      Simple binary coding: Just to record, whether or not the category appears in the document.

b.      Frequency: To record how many times each category occurs in the document.

c.       Space Coverage: Calculation of space area of coverage of difficult categories.

d.      Creating Judgmental Scales: Calculation of different categories in terms of positive/negative sense as well as strongly or weakly stated.

·         Strengths of Content Analysis:

è Helpful to convert qualitative data into quantitative form.

è Helpful to trace out the trend, development process & differences in communication content.

è Helpful to identify the intentions & other characteristics of communication.

·         Weaknesses of Content Analysis:

è Difficult to maintain objectivity (value-free)

è Generalization problem

è Problem in quantification

·         Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA)

Emerged in late 1970s, the credit of this goes to Agro-engineers. Learning process of outsider.

·         Context:

è Dissatisfaction with the biases of Rural Development Tourism (RDT)

(Spatial bias, personal bias, seasonal bias …)

è Dissatisfaction with the traditional Survey Method

(Time consuming, complex, inflexible, biased…)

è Recognition of indigenous knowledge

S.W. Grandstaff: “RRA is a rapid, intensive and interactive process of learning about rural conditions from multidisciplinary perspective with a particular emphasis on tapping the local knowledge by explaining a range of methods, tools & techniques.”

·         Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

Developed in late 1980s, that means empowering people through participation

Robert Chamber: “A growing family of approaches & methods to enable rural people to share, enhance & analyze their knowledge.”

·         Common Basic Principles of RRA/PRA:

è Learning rapidly & progressively (flexible)

è Emphasis on indigenous knowledge, bottom-up approach

è Offsetting biases

è Triangulation (use of several tools, techniques, involvement of interdisciplinary team)

è Presence of outsiders as facilitator

è Looking error positively

·         Tools/Techniques of RRA/PRA

è Secondary sources (files, records, reports, maps…)

è Key Informant Interview (KII)

è Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

è Transect walk: Discussion & observation walking around the field area.

è Free Listing: Mentioning elements/units of certain domain.“

è Pair Comparison/Contrast Comparison

è Pile-sorting: Grouping in similarities base.

è Ranking: Hierarchy of elements in certain domain in some basis.

è Seasonal & ritual calendar

è Timeline: list of main events of the field.

è Pairwise ranking: Need assessment by comparison.

è Social Resource Mapping

è Daily Routine Diagram: daily activities.

è Pie Diagram

·         Merits of RRA/PRA:

è Cross-checking possible

è Flexible & rapid method/cost effective

è Accuracy can be maintained in information

è Native perspective can be grasped

è Bottom-up approach

è Empowerment of local people possible

è Free from several types of biasness

è Transparency can be maintained

è Sustainability can be maintained

·         Limitations of RRA/PRA:

è Can’t be applied in broad & urban area

è Difficult to get people’s participation

è Dominance of elite group

è Difficulty in generalization because of Relative data.

è Hangover of Rural Development Tourism (RDT)

Research Proposal

Research proposal is a document written by a researcher that provides a detailed description of the proposed program. It is like an outline of the entire research process that gives a reader a summary of the information discussed in a project.

·         Research Proposal Elements:

o   Identification of research topic

o   Statement of the research problem

o   Literature review

·         Major Factors to consideration of Topic Selection:

o   Relative to research objective

o   Specific (neither too general nor too specific)

o   Availability of data

o   Skill of researcher (including experience)

o   Availability of time & resource

o   Legal provision

o   Ethical consideration

·         Statement of Research Problem

o   Broad area Selection (Human Right)

o   Breakdown broad area (Personal security, rule of law, political participation)

o   Select the specific issue

·         Literature Review

o   Source of research related topic and subject in any form is literature in sociological sense.

o   Source of knowledge about research is known as literature and reviewing such sources is known as literature review.

o   Based on principle of knowledge accumulation.

o   Sources: Periodicals, newspapers, magazines, radio broadcastings, books, theses, governmental documents…

·         Goals of Literature Review

o   Accumulation of early developed knowledge on the study subjects (Gaining Knowledge)

o   Specify the research field (Identify the matter to study)

o   Selection of methods for research work

o   Integration of diverse and dispersed knowledge

·         Selection of research sites

o   Consent of people of the sites

·         Techniques of Data Collection

o   Effectiveness of data collection method to achieve the goals/objectives of the research

o   Researcher’s knowledge on selected method

o   Time and resource for conducting research by the method

o   Suitability of the method for respondents & research content

o   Preparation of work schedule

o   Budget plans

o   Preparation of bibliography

·         Significance of Bibliography

o   Recognition of real source/writer

o   Free from plagiarism

o   Responsibility to concerned writer/sources.

·         Documentation system: APA, ASA, MLA

o   Use of quotation

o   Parenthetical citation note

o   Bibliography/references

·         Significance of Bibliography

o   Recognition of rural source/writer

o   Free for plagiarism

o   Responsibility to concerned writer/source

·         Documentation System:

o   APA

o   ASA

o   MLA

o   Use of quotation

o   Parenthetical citation note

o   Bibliography/references

·         Research Design

o   Universe & Sampling

Field Work

Goode and Hatt: “Field work is the study of the people in their culture in their natural habitat.”

·         Preparation of Field Work

o   Intellectual Preparation

§  Clarity about focus area

§  Knowledge about the culture & setting of study area

§  Selection of appropriate tools/techniques

§  Knowledge of local language if at all possible

§  Decision about work schedule

§  Training of field staff

o   Psychological Preparation

§  Fee form any kind of prejudice

§  High tolerance & patience

§  Boldness

§  Flexibility in behavior

§  Self-discipline

o   Conducting Field Work:

§  Rapport Building

§  Data collection through use of various types…

§  Note Taking

§  Editing data in the field

In social research, the process of data collection is an interaction process to in which at least some extent of relation is required between data collector & respondents. Close relation between those two parties is called Rapport & building such relations is called Rapport Building.

·         Significance of Rapport Building In Social Research:

o   Creates appropriate environment for data collection

o   Helps to reduce hesitation of information provider

o   Meaningful. Realistic & complete data are collected

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